Death  and  Liffe: 
an  alliterative  Poem 


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DEATH  AND  LIFFE: 

An  Alliterative   Poem 

Edited  with  Iijtroduction  and  Notes 

By 
JAMES  HOLLY  HANFORD, 

Associate  Professor  of  English  in  the  University  of  North  Carolina 

and 
JOHN  MARCELLUS  STEADMAN,  JR., 

Instructor  in  English  in  the  University  of  North  Carolina 


Mors  et  vita  duello  ccnflixere  mirando; 
Dux  vitae  mortuus  regnat  vivus. 


:    '.''.'.'    ••.-.'.•      '."•('1,'  ■"*   •'\' 


CHAPEL  HILL 

Published  by  the  University 

1918 


bii  u  0 


f  Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

^  in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/deathliffealliteOOhanf 


DEATH  AND  LIFFE 

An  Alliterative   Poem 


PREFACE 


^ 


A  new  edition  of  this  unique  and  beautiful  alliterative  poem  has  long 
been  felt  to  be  a  desideratum.  The  Hales-Furnivall  reprint  of  Biohop 
Percy's  Folio  Manuscript,  published  in  1868,  where  Death  and  Liffe  is 
edited  by  Professpr  Skeat,  is  out  of  print,  and  Arber's  modernization  of 
the  piece  in  the  Dtwiftor  Anthology  is  of  little  use  for  scholarly  purposes. 
No  other  reprint  exists,  though  an  edition  wa«  promised  some  years  ago 
by  Professor  Gollancz  as  a  future  number  of  his  excellent  series.  Select 
Early  English  Poems.  The  present  edition  aims  to  make  the  poem  accessi- 
ble with  a  somewhat  more  extensive  critical  apparatus  than  falls  within 
the  scope  of  Professor  Gollancz's  plan.  The  publication,  since  the  Hales- 
Furnivall  reprint,  of  various  important  alliterative  poems,  with  further 
studies  of  the  alliterative  style  and  meter,  and  the  accumulated  comment 
of  several  scholars,  notably  York  Powell,  Brotanek,  Holthausen,  and  Miss 
Edith  Scamman,  have  made  possible  a  fuller  illustration  of  Death  and 
Liffe  and  a  more  accurate  account  of  its  literary  relations  than  have 
heretofore  been  given. 

The  poem  is  well  worth  study,  both  from  the  scholarly  and  from  the 
purely  literary  point  of  view.  There  are  few  finer  things  in  the  whole 
range  of  Middle-English  poetry.  The  author  has  brought  to  his  didactic 
theme  a  lofty  imagination  and  a  sense  of  poetic  phrase  which  make  Death 
and  Liffe  rank  high  even  among  the  most  powerful  productions  of  the 
alliterative  school.  Its  noble  solemnity  and  religious  fervor  are  touched 
with  a  romantic  grace,  and  the  subject  is  handled  with  the  artistry  of  a 
poet  bred  in  the  traditions  of  such  matchless  works  as  Gav>ain  and  the 
Green  Knight  and  The  Pearl.  The  unusual  combination  of  conventional 
materials  gives  to  the  work  an  exceptional  degree  of  originality,  a  fact 
which  has  been  somewhat  obscured  by  undue  insistence  on  the  author's 
debt  to  Piers  Ploicman.  Unfortunately  the  text  of  Death  and  Liffe  is 
corrupt  heyond  the  powers  of  a  modern  editor  to  restore,  or  even,  in  some 
places,  to  explain.  Originally  written  in  the  archaic  diction  affected  by 
writers  of  the  alliterative  school,  the  piece  was  copied  by  a  scribe  or 
scribes  to  whom  many  of  the  expressions  were  unintelligible.  The  latest 
copyist,  moreover,  was  very  careless.  As  a  result  the  manuscript  is  a 
chaos  of  modernization  and  sheer  blunder.     A  striking  example  is  the  line 


Sc  I  ffayrlye  befell,  so  fayre  me  bethought, 


223 


?'M  Death  und  Liffc:   An  AnUcraiire  Poem 

which  would  seom  to  be  a  scribe's  "translation"  of  some  such  original 
as  the  following: 

&  a   fayrlyc  bcfoU,  of  fayric  mo  thought. 

The  present  editors,  while  correcting  some  obvious  errors,  have  thought  it 
unwise  to  attempt  any  such  restoration  of  the  poem  as  was  recommended 
by  York  Powell.  Many  of  his  suggestions  have,  however,  been  incorporated 
in  the  notes.  In  general  the  introductory  sections  on  language  and  meter 
and  the  vocabulary  are  the  work  of  Dr.  Steadman;  the  discussions  of  the 
debate  form,  the  theme  and  the  sources  are  by  Professor  Hanford.  For 
the  conclusions  as  to  date  and  for  the  textual  and  literary  notes  we  are 
jointly  responsible,  though  the  work  of  collation  has  been  chiefly  borne  by 
Dr.  Steadman.  We  have  used  a  rotograph  facsimile  of  the  manuscript  and 
have  been  able  to  correct  several  errors  in  the  Hales-Fuirnivall  reprint, 
notably  the  omission  of  line  447. 

J.  H.  H., 
J.  M.  S.,  Jr. 
Chapel  Hill,  June  5,  1918. 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  The  Mandsceipt 

Death  and  Life  is  preserved  in  the  famous  Percy  Folio  MS., 
"  a  long  narrow  folio  volume  containing  195  Sonnets,  Ballads, 
Historical  Songs,  and  Metrical  Romances,  either  in  the  whole  or 
in  part,  for  many  of  them  are  extremely  mutilated  and  imperfect."  ^ 

The  transcripts  seem  to  have  been  made  about  1650  by  one 
person,  who  often  grew  so  weary  of  his  labor  as  to  write  without 
due  regard  to  the  meaning  of  his  copy. 

Death  and  Life,  standing  between  The  Turk  in  Linen  and  Adam 
Bell,,  occupies  pages  384-390  of  the  MS. 

II.  The  Language 

A.    Phonology  and  Inflections. 

Short  Vowels 

O.  E.  a  gives  a  in  this  poem:  asketh,  5,  haue,  15,  fareth,  22,  naked,  91, 
art,  129,  care,  131. 

0.  E.  a/n  gives  an  in  the  majority  of  cases,  and,  less  often,  on:  rann,  4, 
218,  manye,  23,  hangeth,  66,  standeth,  82,  257,  ham,d,  96;  but  wrongfully, 
15,  long,  162,  ronge,  138. 

O.  E.  ce  gives  a  regularly:   that,  1,  etc.,  was,  26,  what,  35,  brake,  265. 

O.  E.  oeg  appears  regularly  as  ai  or  ay:  layd,  71,  may,  181,  braynes,  265, 
maydens,  215,  437,  slaine,  219,  day,  244. 

O.  E.  e  appears  usually  as  e,  often  as  ea,  and  rarely  as  ee:  necke,  91, 
her,  quelleth,  213,  wretch,  233,  helpe,  242,  tell,  85;  freake,  161,  176,  speake, 
220;  deere,  427.     In  feild,  319,  we  have  ei,  but  in  feeld,  64,  ee. 

O.  E.  e/r.  appears  as  ar  in  clarkes,  85,  etc.  (but  clewrkes,  8),  morde, 
141,  243. 

0.  E.  eg  appears  as  ai:  sayth,  221,  way,  308,  frame,  130. 

0.  E.  i  appears  as  i,  y.     See  lines  1,  5,  15,  17,  21,  54,  74,  etc. 

O.  E.  0  gives  0  .*  6odi/,  6,  word,  5,  Aope,  19,  jrod,  20,  gold,  62. 

O.  E.  w  gives  00 :  doore,  10,  wood,  39;  or  o;  io«e,  69,  107,  some,  262, 
«onne,  18;  and  u  only  in  rudd,  66. 

0.  E.  tt/nd  appears  as  ound:  ground,  3,  mound,  377. 

0.  E.  -tt^,  appears  as  ou:fowles,  81. 


^  Preface  to  the  first  American  edition  of  Percy's  Reliques,  Phil.,  1823, 
page  X. 

225 


226  Death  and  Life:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

Long  Vowels 

0.  E.  6  becomes  <3  usually,  Tout  sometimes  66:  both,  11,  holy,  19,  ghost, 
19,  glode,  28,  hore,  31,  drove,  3,  more,  47;  brood,  25  (ibeside  brode,  63). 
In  monosyllables:  noe,  11,  loe,  183,  icoe,  140,  the  spelling  oe  is  common. 

O.  E.  8w  appears  as  6u,  6w:  km,ow,  47,  soule,  2,  236,  nought,  9. 

O.  E.  «  (Mercian  e)  appears  as  ea  in  breath,  34,  leadeth,  124,  feare,  130, 
u>€apo7i,  171,  deale,  263;  as  ee  in  sleepe,  35,  deeds,  103,  M^eeds,  185,  beere, 
331. 

0.  E.  ^p  appears  as  ay,  ot:  f^roy,  73,  etc. 

O.  E.  ^  gives  ee  usually:  fceene,  10,  stceete,  23,  greene,  26,  deeme,  87, 
epeede,  117;  and,  less  often,  e:  breme,  74,  etc.  In  neighed,  137  (from 
O.  M.  genegan)  the  spelling  ei  occurs. 

O.  E.  t  appears  regularly  as  i,  y.     See  lines  4,  10,  12,  73,  215,  l&l,  etc. 

0.  E.  6  appears  as  66  or,  less  often,  as  6 ;  booke,  16,  blood,  4,  looke,  29, 
flood,  113,  sooth,  120,  others,  6,  etc.  In  the  monosyllable  doe  the  spelling 
oe  is  common.     Cf .  the  development  of  0.  E.  6. 

O.  E,  6/h  and  6/g  give  ou.*  bowes,  23. 

O.  E.  «  appears  regularly  as  ou,  ow:  south,  50,  mouth,  67,  etc.,  downe, 
195,  Tioir,  368.     The  o  in  selcothes,  182,  is  unusual. 

Diphthongs 

0.  E.  ea  appears  as  o  in  &oW,  7,  behold,  139,  doive,  275,  oid,  422,  told, 
391;  as  a  in  aH,  12,  203,  etc.,  bames,  81,  242,  walled,  207;  and  as  ea  in 
beames,  90,  110,  144,  424.     Welder,  125,  is  unusual. 

O.  E.  eo  appears  as  o  in  world,  5,  117,  worfces,  17,  worth,  248;  as  a  in 
hart,  7,  18,  128,  carued,  156,  247;  and  as  ea  in  earth,  7,  11,  heaven,  59,  135, 
leam-ed,  179,  302.     Fries,  53,  and  fturnes  (verb),  165,  show  e  and  w. 

O.  E.  ea  regularly  gives  ea:  death,  10,  greaten,  17,  leaves,  25,  siream,  27, 
fteomes,  92,  407,  etc.;  but  e  in  red,  4,  nere,  148. 

O.  E.  eo  gives  ee  in  freelye,  18,  deepe,  38,  deere,  53,  254,  see,  162,  etc., 
trees,  194,  feend,  236,  2eeds,  339;  ea  in  dea/re,  424;  and  e  in  iere,  170. 

Consonants 
O.  E.  sc  appears  regularly  as  sh,  and  hw  as  wjA. 

Inflections 

Verb 

Present   Indicative:   l»t person,  -e  or  no  ending. 
2nd  person,  -est,  ten  times. 

-es,  four  times   (299,  363,  366 ).» 


*  jEs  for  est  is  found  in  the  superlatives  riches  and  comlyes. 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  227 

Singular:  -s,  twice  (239,  370). 

-eth,  five  times  (243,  288,  296,  297,  300). 
3d  person,  -eth,  fifty-three  times. 

-es,  six  times   (9,  198,  220,  230,  etc.). 
Plural :  '  -en  without  exception. 

Present  participle:    -ing. 

Past  participle:   -en  usually;  -e;  and  no  ending. 

Present   infinitive:   Usually  no  ending,  occasionally  -e;  -en    (17,  392).* 


B.     Dialect 

Students  of  Death  and  Life  have  called  the  dialect  of  the  poem 
Midland  or  Northern.*  Since  the  poem  shows  a  mixed  dialect,  this 
difference  of  opinion  is  perfectly  intelligible.  Fumivall  believes 
that  the  language  of  the  scribe  of  the  Percy  Folio  ms.  was  that  of 
Lancashire,  which,  unfortunately  for  our  study,  was  itself  a  mixed 
dialect.  The  mixture  of  dialect  may  be  due,  then,  either  to  the 
scribe  of  the  Percy  Folio  or  to  an  earlier  scribe.  In  a  poem  that  has 
been  copied  we  know  not  how  many  times  dialect  mixture  will  almost 
always  result.  The  mixture  here  between  Northern  and  Midland 
we  regard  as  due  to  the  insertion  of  Northern  forms  by  a  scribe 
copying  a  Midland  copy  of  the  poem.  This  impression,  of  course, 
cannot  be  proved  with  any  degree  of  certainty,  and  it  is  possible 
that  York  Powell  is  right  in  attributing  the  Midland  characteristics 
to  a  Midland  scribe.  But  since  the  basis  of  the  language  of  the 
poem  as  we  now  have  it  is  North  Midland,  we  conclude  that  the 
Northern  forms  are  due  to  one  of  the  scribes.     The  conclusion 

*  See  summary  of  Luick's  discussion  of  the  metre  of  the  poem,  pp.  259-60. 

*  Skeat  (Percy  Folio  MS.  m,  49flF.)  says  that  D.  <&  L.  and  Sc.  F.  are 
written  in  the  same  dialect.  Schipper  (op.  cit.,  96)  and  Luick  (op.  cit., 
608  and  612)  believe  that  both  poems  are  written  in  the  Midland  Dialect. 
But  York  Powell  (Eng.  Stud.,  Tii,  97fF. ),  Schumacher  (op.  cit.,  p.  11)  and 
Holthausen  (Anglia  Beihlatt,  xxni,  157  fF.)  are  of  the  opinion  that  the 
original  dialect  of  the  poem  was  Northern.  It  is  difficult  to  tell  from  the 
present  state  of  the  language  whether  the  two  poems  are  written  in  the 
same  dialect.  There  are,  however,  some  differences  in  the  language  of  the 
two  pieces  that  cast  doubt  on  the  correctness  of  Skeat's  theory:  (1)  O.  E. 
e  gives  e  regularly  in  8c.  F.,  e,  ea,  and  ee  m  D.  d  L.;  (2)  niiged,  Sc. 
F.  171,  is  a  late  spelling  for  M.  E.  <';  (3)  toi,  wy,  wight,  in  D.  &  L.  appears 
as  tcay  in  -Sc.  F.,  114;  (4)  the  vocabulary  of  Sc.  F.  is  more  Northern  than 
that  of  D.  d  L. 


228  Death  and  Liffe:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

that  the  dialect  of  the  poem  is  North  Midland  is  based  on  the 
following  evidence : 

1.  There  are  no  Southern  characteristics. 

2.  Common  to  North  Midland  and  Northern  are  0.  E.  a  >  a  and 
o;  the  retention  of  y  <  0.  E.  y  <  u/i,  j;  the  infinitive  in  e  or  -;  and 
the  confusion  of  a,  e,  and  o/r. 

3.  Northern  are  the  past  participle  in  -en;  the  infinitive  without 
ending  (usually)  ;  and  -es  (ten  cases)  in  the  third  person  singular 
of  the  present  indicative. 

4.  Characteristic  of  Midland  are  -eth  in  the  third  person  singular 
of  the  present  indicative  (fifty-three  cases) ;  -en  in  the  third  plural 
indicative;  the  participle  vsrithout  exception  in  ing{e) ;  sh  <  0.  E. 
sc  and  wh  <  0.  E.  hw;  6/r  <  0.  E.  ce/r;  o  <  0.  E.  ea/ld  and  the 
absence  or  sco  and  scho  <  0.  E.  seo. 

C.     Vocabulary 

In  respect  to  vocabulary  Death  and  Liffe  is  very  similar  to  the 
alliterative  poems  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries.  The 
majority  of  the  words  are  derived  from  Anglo-Saxon  (79%),  the 
Eomance  and  Norse  elements  being  much  smaller  (Eomance 
14.2%,  Norse  6.6%).  Many  of  the  words  are  to  be  found  in  the 
other  alliterative  poems  of  this  school.  For  example,  the  words 
listed  by  Skeat  as  peculiar  to  Death  and  Liffe  and  Scotish  Feilde 
occur  in  practically  all  of  the  alliterative  poems  after  Piers  Plow- 
man.'^ As  will  be  seen  from  the  notes  on  alliterative  phrases, 
the  language  of  Death  and  Liffe  is  thoroughly  conventional  and 
entirely  in  line  with  the  traditions  of  the  alliterative  school.^ 

"Leeih,  Pari.  Wm.  Troy,  Morte  Arthure;  frekes,  beames,  segges,  Pari, 
Wm.,  Tr.  M.  A.;  tveld,  Wm.,  Tr.,  M.  A.;  keyre.  Pari.,  Wm.,  Tr.,  M.A.;  dmg. 
Pari.,  Tr.  Nay,  which  Skeat  takes  as  the  equivalent  of  nor  in  D.  d  L.  ^33 
and  443,  is  the  only  word  that  is  peculiar  to  D.  £  L.  and  8c.  F.  But  in 
8c.  F.  the  word  clearly  means  not,  while  in  D.  &  L.  it  may  mean  nay  or  nor. 
It  will  be  noted  that  the  word  occurs  in  lines  which  are  identical  in  D.  d 
L.  A  comparison  of  the  vocabulary  of  D.  &  L.  with  the  glossaries  of  other 
alliterative  poems  shows  that  D.  d  L.  has  22  words  (leaving  out  of  con- 
sideration the  familiar  and  common  words)  in  common  with  Pari.,  29  with 
Wm.,  37  with  M.  A.,  and  40  with  Troy. 

'  The  difiQculties  in  determining  the  meaning  of  some  of  the  words  in  the 
poem  are  discussed  in  the  textual  notes  or  in  the  glossary.  Some  of  the 
words  listed  may  be  miswritings  of  the  copyist.  Others  are  certainly  correct 
writings  of  words  which  are  rare  and  unusual. 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  229 

III.    The  Date 

Criteria  for  dating  Death  and  Liffe  with  any  degree  of  definite- 
ness  are  almost  wholly  wanting.  The  extreme  lateness  of  the 
manuscript  makes  the  usual  linguistic  tests  of  uncertain  value, 
and  the  poem  contains  no  historical  allusions  which  might  afford 
a  clew.  Certain  inference  may,  however,  be  drawn  from  its  literary 
relations.  Bishop  Percy  speaks  of  the  piece  as  having  been  for 
aught  that  appears  written  as  early  as,  if  not  before,  the  time  of 
Langland,  though  he  elsewhere  suggests  a  common  authorship  with 
the  sixteenth  century  Scotish  Feilde,  a  poem  written  in  the  same 
general  style  and  meter,  which  happens  also  to  have  been  included 
in  the  Folio  Manuscript.  Subsequent  commentators  have  agreed 
that  Death  and  lAfe  is  later  than  Piers  Plowman.  The  connection 
between  the  two  works  is  obvious  and  a  close  examination  of  the 
parallels  (see  below,  p.  248)  will  be  found  to  establish  pretty  firmly 
the  conclusion  that  it  is  the  Death  and  Life  author  who  is  the 
debtor.  The  borrowings  are  from  the  B  or  C  version,  probably 
from  C,  though  the  evidence  is  somewhat  contradictory.  We  are 
safe,  therefore,  in  assuming  that  Death  and  Liffe  was  composed 
after  1377  (B)  or  1386-1399  (C). 

Percy's  suggestion  as  to  identity  of  authorship  with  Scotish 
Feilde  was  taken  up  by  Skeat,  who  concludes  that  Death  and  Liffe 
was  written  not  far  from  1513,  a  date  established  for  Scotish  Feilde 
by  the  battle  of  Flodden  Field  in  that  year.  Skeat's  argument, 
based  on  a  supposedly  "  remarkable  similarity  in  the  style,  diction, 
and  rhythm  of  the  two  poems,"  is  entirely  inconclusive.  It  is 
effectively  disposed  of  by  Miss  Edith  Scamman  ^  in  an  extended 
consideration  of  the  subject,,  the  main  points  of  which  may  be  here 
given,  together  with  some  additional  observations. 

1.  The  metrical  similarities  are  no  greater  than  is  to  be  expected 
in  two  poems  of  the  alliterative  tradition.  There  are  indeed  some 
important  distinctions  in  metrical  usage  which  led  Luick,  on  this 
ground  alone,  to  deny  the  common  authorship  of  Death  and  Liffe 
and  Scotish  Feilde.     (See  pp.  259-260.) 

2.  The  use  in  both  pieces  of  such  words  as  '■■'  f  rekes,"  "  bearnes," 

*"  The  Alliterative  Poem:  Death  and  Liffe,"  Radcliffe  Studies  in  English 
and  Comparative  Literature. 


230  De^ih  aud  Liffe:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

"  segges,"  as  equivalent  of  men  and  of  peculiar  words  like  "  weld," 
"  key  re,"  "  ding,"  is  unimportant,  since  these  and  similar  phrases 
are  a  part  of  the  conventional  and  archaic  vocabulary  employed  by 
all  writers  of  the  alliterative  tradition.  (See  above,  p.  228).  The 
use  of  "  nay  "  for  "  ne  "  or  "  nor  "  is  more  unusual,  but  the  word 
occurs  only  twice  in  Death  and  Liffe  (for  "nor,"  433,  443),  and 
once  in  Scotish  Feilde  (for  "not,"  81).  If  any  importance  is  to 
be  attached  to  this  point  the  use  in  Scotish  Feilde  may  be  explained 
as  due  to  the  author's  knowledge  of  Death  and  Liffe. 

3.  The  parallel  lines  and  phrases  to  which  Skeat  has  pointed 
as  evidence  of  common  authorship  lose  their  significance  in  view 
of  a  wider  survey  of  the  poems  in  the  alliterative  group;  the 
parallels  cited  by  Skeat  being  in  almost  every  case  alliterative 
commonplaces.  (See  notes  to  lines  24,  172,  185,  436,  etc.).  In 
any  case  these  parallels  can  prove  only  that  the  Scotish  Fielde  poet 
was  familiar  with  Death  and  Liffe. 

4.  Linguistic  differences  between  the  two  ,are  sufficiently  marked 
to  cast  doubt  on  Skeat's  hypothesis.     (See  above,  p.  227). 

5.  In  general  Death  and  Liffe  and  Scotish  Feilde  bear  but  little 
resemblance  to  each  other.  The  first  is  a  vision  allegory,  embodying 
a  debate,  the  work  of  a  serious-minded  poet  steeped  in  mediaeval 
literary  traditions  and  possessed  of  exceptional  imaginative  power; 
the  second  a  chronicle  of  contemporary  events,  by  a  gentleman  (cf. 
line  416),  vigorously  written,  but  less  archaic  in  form  and  entirely 
lacking  in  the  poetic  fervor  and  elevation  of  Death  and  Liffe. 
Professor  Manly  ^  is  entirely  right  in  feeling  its  author  to  have 
been  incapable  of  the  excellence  of  our  poem.  Further  discussion 
of  Skeat's  conjecture  is  unnecessary  in  view  of  the  fact  that  it  has 
not  seriously  commended  itself  to  any  later  student  of  the  poem. 
It  was  based,  no  doubt,  on  the  circumstance  that  these  two  allitera- 
tive poems  happened  to  occur  together  in  the  Percy  Manuscript, 
and  a  more  mature  consideration  of  the  matter  would  probably 
have  led  Skeat  to  change  his  view. 

A  second  attempt  to  fix  the  date  of  Death  and  Liffe  in  the  six- 
teenth century  is  made  by  Miss  Scamman  in  the  article  already 
cited.  She  finds  in  the  poem  an  apparent  imitation  of  certain 
passages  describing  Nature  in  Dunbar's  The  Golden  Ta/rge  (93  ff.) 
and  The  Thistle  and  the  Rose  (73  fP.),  and  a  general  similarity 

'  Cambridge  History  of  English  Literature,  Vol.  n,  p.  46. 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Stead-man,  Jr.  331 

of  theme  with  such  poems  as  The  Lament  for  the  Maharis.  She 
therefore  concludes  that  the  piece  was  written  shortly  after  1503, 
the  date  of  The  Thistle  and  the  Rose.  The  true  explanation  of 
the  parallels  between  the  description  of  Liffe  in  our  poem  and 
those  of  Dame  Xature  in  Dunbar,  lies,  however,  not  in  Miss 
Scamman's  theory  of  direct  borrowing,  but  in  the  use  of  a  common 
source,  viz.,  the  widely  known  De  Planctu  Natures  of  Alanus  de 
Insulis.  The  relation  of  Death  and  Liffe  to  this  poem  is  discussed 
in  detail  below.  As  to  the  theme  of  the  inevitability  and  the 
destructive  might  of  Death,  we  need  go  no  further  than  the  passages 
in  Piers  Plowman  which  the  Death  and  Liffe  author  may  be  shown 
to  have  used.  Indeed,  one  is  embarrassed  with  riches  in  endeavor- 
ing to  find  sources  for  the  use  of  this  motive  in  Death  and  Liffe. 
Miss  Scamman's  conclusion  as  to  date  must  therefore  be  rejected. 
From  the  linguistic  standpoint  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that 
Death  and  Liffe  is  as  late  as  1500.  Despite  the  modernization  of 
spelling,  as  in  such  words  as  "  ghost,"  "  doubt,"  the  language  of 
the  poem  appears  to  belong  rather  to  the  fifteenth  than  to  the 
sixteenth  century.  A  comparison  of  the  phonology  with  that  of 
Winnere  and  Wastoure  and  of  Emare  forbids  the  conclusion  that 
these  poems  and  Death  and  Liffe  are  two  hundred  and  fifty  years 
apart  in  date.  In  literary  form  Death  and  Liffe  holds  very  closely, 
as  will  be  shown,  with  the  older  poems  of  the  alliterative  school, 
and  it  seems  likely  that  its  author  was  nearer  to  them  in  point  of 
time  than  the  poet  of  Scotish  Feilde.  Recent  scholarly  opinion 
has  inclined  to  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  as  a  probable 
period  for  the  origin  of  Death  and  Liffe.  Thus  Luick  (op.  cit.,  p. 
612)  observes  that  the  style  is  "  fiir  das  sechzehnte  jahrhundert  in 
hohem  grade  alterthiimlicher."  On  metrical  grounds  he  concludes 
that  Death  and  Liffe  probably  originated  at  a  time  when  the  final 
-e  was  sometimes  still  pronounced  in  poetry  (i.  e.,  in  the  fifteenth 
century).^  Schneider,  after  a  comparative  study  of  the  metre  of 
the  two  poems,  infers  that  the  final  -e  was  much  more  often 
pronounced  in  Death  and  Liffe  than  in  Scotish  Feilde  and  believes 
that  it  was  composed  some  fifty  years  earlier,  circa  1450,*  Our 
own  study  of  Death  and  Liffe  inclines  us  to  the  opinion  that  the 

*  See  also  Luick's  treatment  of  the  icr  :  ic  alliteration  in  Death  and  Liffe 
and  Scotish  Feilde. 

*  Bonner  Beitrage,  xn,  109  ff. 


232  Death  and  Liffe:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

poem  is  before  1450  rather  than  after  that  date.  Further  comment 
on  this  subject  will  be  found  in  the  sections  on  language  and 
meter,  and  on  the  theme  and  sources. 


IV.     The  Debate  Form 

The  conflictus  or  debate,  of  which,  as  we  have  already  remarked, 
Denfh  and  Liffe  is  to  be  regarded  as  an  example,  is  the  joint 
product  of  the  mediaeval  love  of  allegory  and  of  the  habit  of 
controversy  and  disputation  fostered  by  the  discipline  of  the 
schools.  The  literary  type  is  widespread  and  ill-defined,  springing 
up  not  in  mediEeval  Europe  alone,  but  spontaneously  in  various 
times  and  places.  Thus  there  was  in  the  ancient  synkrisis  substan- 
tially the  same  phenomenon  ^  and  allegorical  disputes,  often 
identical  in  theme  with  those  of  the  Middle  Ages,  exist  in  large 
numbers  in  Persian  and  Arabian  Literature."  The  mediaeval 
debate  has,  however,  a  history  of  its  own,  developing  certain  tradi- 
tional characteristics  which  are  clearly  traceable  in  Death  and  Liffe. 

The  term  debate  has  been  used  to  cover  a  great  variety  of  more 
or  less  contentious  dialogues,  whether  between  real  or  fictitious 
individuals  or  between  personified  abstractions.  The  distinguishing 
feature  of  the  class  of  debates  to  which  Death  and  Liffe  belongs 
is  the  clear  cut  opposition  of  two  ideals  or  principles  or  points  of 
view,  expressed  in  a  dialogue  between  typical  or  abstract  figures 
who  are  themselves  the  embodiment  of  that  for  which  they  contend. 
The  disputants  may  be  typical  persons,  as  a  Christian  and  a  Jew; 
animals,  birds  or  objects;  or  finally  mere  abstractions,  as  Vice  and 
Virtue,  Wisdom  and  Folly,  the  World  and  Eeligion,  Death  and 
Life.  The  schematic  mind  of  the  Middle  Ages,  tending  as  it  did 
to  see  things  in  black  and  white  and  prone  to  find  everywhere 
opposites,  antipathies,  and  contrasts,  provided  such  materials  in 
rich  abundance.  The  debate  is  partly  a  jeu  d'esprit,  the  work  of 
pedagogues  and  scholastic  philosophers  on  a  half  holiday,  or  of 

*  See  Miss  Margaret  Waites'  article,  "  Some  Aspects  of  the  Ancient  Alle- 
gorical Debate,"  in  Radcliffe  Studies  in  English  and  Comparative  Litera- 
ture, also  Otto  Hense,  Die  Synkrisis  in  der  antiken  Litteratwr,  and  Hirzel, 
Der  Dialog. 

'  Moriz  Steinschneider,  "  Rangstreit-Literatur,"  Sitsungsberichte  der 
Wiener  Akad.,  Phil.-Hist.  Kl.,  155   (4),  1907-8. 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  233 

students  amusing  themselves  with  clever  parodies  of  their  serious 
intellectual  occupations;  it  is  partly,  also,  the  fruit  of  a  sincere 
endeavor  of  the  mediaeval  man  to  represent  imaginatively  the 
great  dualisms  of  existence  and  to  proclaim  the  triumph  of  one 
or  another  principle  in  the  eternal  warfare  of  ideals.  Hence,  while 
many  debates  are  trivial  and  wearisome,  their  cleverness  having 
long  since  lost  its  point,  others,  like  the  Debate  of  the  Body  and 
the  Soul,  and  the  present  one  of  Death  and  Life,  are  among  the 
deepest  and  most  powerful  expressions  of  the  mediaeval  spirit. 

Since  the  contestants  are  personified  principles  or  causes  their 
discussion  tends  to  resolve  itself  into  a  strife  for  superiority,  but 
while  the  question  is  usually  one  of  relative  merit  other  issues 
may  be  involved.  Iij  the  Debate  of  the  Body  and  the  Soul,  for 
example,  the  contest  hinges  on  the  question  of  which  one  is  respon- 
sible for  the  sins  of  man.  Sometimes  the  point  lies  in  the  mutual 
rights  of  the  two  antagonists,  and  in  such  debates  the  contest  is 
commonly  conceived  of  as  a  legal  one.  The  issue  in  Death  and  Life 
is  fundamentally  one  of  relative  power  and  right.  Liffe  complains 
that  Death  is  wantonly  trampling  down  her  children.  Death  boasts 
of  her  superior  might,  and  also,  after  the  more  usual  fashion  of 
the  debate,  defends  her  utility  in  the  scheme  of  things.  Finally 
Liffe  proclaims  her  eternal  victory  over  the  enemy  through  Christ. 
There  is  also  in  our  poem  the  customary  appeal  to  a  judge,  in  this 
case  God,  who  sends  Countenance  to  restrain  the  ravages  of  Death, 
and  the  very  common  combination  with  the  debate  of  the  dream  or 
vision  setting.  For  the  origin  of  these  and  other  conventions  we 
must  review  briefly  the  early  history  of  the  genre  in  mediaeval 
literature. 

The  formal  tradition  of  the  mediaeval  debate  begins  in  the 
neo-Latin  poetry  of  the  Carolingian  renaissance.  The  materials 
for  debate,  expressed  in  forms  which  tend  to  approximate  to  the 
later  mediaeval  type,  and  which  did,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  often 
come  to  fuse  with  it,  were  already  common  enough,  deriving  from 
classical.  Christian,  and  Teutonic  sources.  Chief  of  these  were 
the  rhetorical  comparisons,  contrasts  and  encomia  which  were 
familiar  as  literary  exercises  in  the  late  Roman  and  early  mediaeval 
schools;  didactic  allegories  like  the  Psychomachia  of  Prudentius 
and  the  theological  dialogue  between  the  four  daughters  of  God; 
philosophical  and  polemical  dialogue,  particularly  those  in  which 


234  Death  and  Lijfe:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

the  Christian  faith  is  defended  against  paganism,  Judaism,  and 
other  heresies;  and  lastly  flytings  and  other  types  of  popular 
dialogue.  The  establishment  of  a  fairly  definite  literary  form  for 
the  embodiment  of  the  numerous  contrasts  and  rivalries  inherent 
in  mediaeval  life  and  thought  was,  however,  due  to  the  determining 
influence  of  the  classical  pastoral,  revived  by  Alcuin  and  his 
followers  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries-^*  In  the  typical  debates 
of  this  period  the  characters — Winter  and  Summer,  Truth  and 
Falsehood,  the  Lily  and  the  Rose — contend  in  amoebaean  strains 
with  obvious  reminiscences  in  their  style  and  setting  of  the 
Virgil ian  eclogue.  From  these  poems  a  definite  tradition  can  be 
traced  to  the  host  of  Latin  conflictuses  in  the  twelfth  century,  and, 
through  them,  to  the  debates  which  flourished  in  the  vernacular 
literatures  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  and  well  into  modern 
times.  In  the  Carolingian  debates  the  dialogue  is  given  with  a 
simple  narrative  introduction  like  that  in  the  pastoral,  describing 
the  contestants  and  telling  of  their  meeting.  In  the  eleventh 
century  the  author  first  appears  as  auditor  of  the  dispute  *  and  the 
innovation  made  way  for  a  more  elaborate  introduction  recounting 
his  experience.  The  debate  thus  becomes  an  "  adventure  "  and  is 
inevitably  brought  into  association,  as  a  second  step,  with  the 
literature  of  vision.  No  discussion  of  the  mediaeval  vision  as  an 
independent  literary  tradition  is  deemed  necessary  here,  the  subject 
having  been  extensively  dealt  with  by  many  scholars.  General 
allegories  in  vision  form  of  course  long  antedate  the  earliest 
mediaeval  debates.  The  first  instances  of  formal  debates  with 
vision  introduction  are  the  Visio  Fulberti,  the  Latin  original  of 
the  Debate  of  the  Body  and  the  Soul  and,  with  a  fuller  develop- 
ment of  the  setting,  the  Golice  Dialog  us  inter  Aquam  et  Vinum,^ 
both  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  judge,  already  present  in  the 
Carolingian  debates  as  a  fi.gure  borrowed  from  the  eclogue  (in 
the  Conflictus  Veris  et  Hieniis  he  is  called  Palaemon),  is  repre- 
sented in  most  of  the  later  disputations,  appeal  being  made  to 

'  See  Hanford,  "  Classical  Pastoral  and.  Medieval  Debate "  in  The  Ro- 
manic Review,  vol.  ii,  nos.  1  and  2. 

*  In  the  Conflictus  Ovis  et  Lini,  ascribed  to  Hermannus  Contractus, 
Haupt's  Zeitschrift,  vol.  xi,  pp.  215-238. 

'  See  Hanford,  "  The  Medieval  Debate  between  Wine  and  Water,"  Publi- 
cations of  the  Modem  Lamguage  Association,  xxvm,  3. 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  235 

some  neutral  third  person,  often  the  author  himself,  or  to  a  higher 
power,  as  in  the  case  of  Death  and  Life. 

In  the  Latin  conflictus  of  the  twelfth  century  we  have  also  for  the 
first  time  the  introduction  into  the  debate  of  themes  and  motives 
drawn  from  the  system  of  courtly  love.  The  earlier  disputations 
had  been  wholly  learned  and  academic.  The  new  strain  of  romantic 
allegory  appears  in  the  well-known  AUercatio  Phyllidis  et  Flora, ^ 
a  poem  in  which  the  amatory  controversy  of  the  relative  merits  of 
the  clerical  and  the  knightly  lover  is  completely  assimilated  to  the 
traditional  debate  type,  but  with  an  elaboration  of  the  descriptive 
and  narrative  machinery  which,  as  in  Death  and  Life  and  the 
vernacular  debates  generally,  leaves  the  actual  verbal  disputation 
simply  one  incident  in  a  series  of  romantic  and  allegorical  events. 
The  opening  is  an  ornate  description  of  springtime,  a  feature 
which  became  common  in  the  Latin  and  vernacular  disputes.  The 
contestants  are  vividly  characterized.  They  argue  their  cases 
warmly,  and  at  length  agree  to  submit  the  question  to  Cupid.  The 
last  half  of  the  piece  contains  an  account  of  their  journey  to  the 
court  of  Love,  where  the  God  hears  their  cause  and  submits  it  to 
his  judges.  Use  and  Nature,  who  declare  in  favor  of  the  clerk, 
thereby  betraying  very  clearly  the  authorship  of  the  composition. 
The  AUercatio  was  widely  known  and  imitated,  and  it  is  to  be 
counted  a  chief  influence  in  the  later  vernacular  debate.  The 
court  of  Love  materials  and  the  consequent  extension  of  the 
allegory  appear  also  in  Nummus  et  Amor,  a  work  of  perhaps  even 
earlier  date  than  the  AUercatio  but  apparently  of  little  influence.'^ 
In  the  AUercatio  Ganymedis  et  Helenw^  the  dispute  takes  place 
on  Olympus,  not  in  the  court  of  Cupid  but  in  that  of  Mother 
Nature,  a  personage  who,  as  we  shall  see,  plays  an  important 
though  disguised  role  in  Death  and  Life.  The  poem  is  a  vision 
with  the  conventional  description  of  spring. 

"See  Oulmont,  Les  Debats  du  Clerc  et  du  Chevalier,  Paris,  1911,  for  the 
t«xts  and  an  extended  study  of  this  debate  and  its  niimerous  imitations. 

'  Extracts  are  printed  from  the  twelfth  century  Tegernsee  ms.  in  tlie 
Sitzungsberichte  of  the  Munich  Akademie,  Phil. -Hist.  Klasse,  873,  685  ff. 
This  very  important  document  in  the  history  of  the  Court  of  Love  allegory 
has  been  passed  over  in  silence  by  both  Neilson  and  Langlois.  As  a  debate 
it  is  a  distant  forerunner  of  Wirmere  and  Wastoure. 

*  Edited  by  Wattenbach,  Zeitsclwift  fiir  deutsches  Alterthv/m,  xvm, 
124  flF. 


236  Denfh  and  Liffe:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

With  the  extension  of  the  narrative  elements  in  the  debate  there 
goes  also  a  change  in  the  character  of  the  dialogue.  The  earliest 
Latin  disputatious  are  under  the  domination  of  the  pastoral  form 
and  the  alternate  speeches  of  the  contestants  are  short  and  of  equal 
length  after  the  manner  of  the  Virgilian  eclogue.  This  is  true 
also  of  some  of  the  twelfth  century  poems,  but  in  others,  as,  for 
example,  the  Visio  Fulherti,  the  Phyllis  et  Flora,  and  in  the  ver- 
nacular debates  generally,  the  dialogue  tends  to  lose  its  amoebaean 
character,  the  arguments  becoming  long,  argumentative  and  with- 
out definite  correspondences. 

In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  century  Latin  pieces  we  have, 
then,  all  the  essential  features  of  the  fully  developed  allegorical 
debate,  which  became  popular  toward  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages 
in  France  and  England.  The  shift  in  emphasis  from  scholastic 
argument  to  picture  and  romantic  story  was  inevitably  carried 
still  further,  and  various  other  motives,  such  as  the  allegorical 
tournament,  adapted  from  the  Psychomachia  and  from  the 
romances  themselves,  are  added.  In  Hueline  et  Aiglantine, 
a  French  imitation  of  Phyllis  et  Flora,  there  is  an  extension  of  the 
account  of  the  trial  before  Cupid.  Bird  advocates  plead  on  either 
side,  and  champions,  the  nightingale  for  the  knights  and  the  parrot 
for  the  clerks,  engage  in  combat.  Similar  developments  are  illus- 
trated in  the  English  Debate  of  Heart  and  Eye,**  a  fifteenth  century 
version  from  the  French.  In  these  debates  the  courtly,  romantic, 
and  amatory  elements  predominate;  the  more  serious  didactic 
debates  derive  their  materials  rather  from  moral  allegory,  satire, 
and  theology.  Their  authors,  however,  especially  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  tend  to  follow  the  program  set  by  the  amatory  disputes 
and  are  often  more  or  less  affected  by  their  spirit.  Thus  in 
Winnere  and  Wastoure,  a  fourteenth  century  poem,  which  as  we 
shall  show  is  very  closely  related  to  Death  and  Liffe,  we  have  the 
descriptive  and  narrative  machinery  developed  at  the  expense  of 
the  debate  proper,  which  nevertheless  remains  central  in  the  work. 
There  is  an  extended  vision  and  springtime  introduction,  the 
appeal  to  a  judge,  and  the  elements,  at  least,  of  an  allegorical 
tournament  in  the  description  of  the  accoutrements  of  the  two 
contestants  and  their  rival  armies.    These  features  are  substantially 

•Discussed  by  me  in  Modern  Language  Notes,  June,  1911.     The  text  is 
given  by  Miss  Eleanor  Hammond,  Anglia,  xxxv,  235  ff. 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  237 

repeated  in  our  poem.  It  remains  to  consider  the  debate  theme  of 
Death  and  Lijfe  and  to  indicate  the  specific  influences  under  which 
the  piece  took  form. 

V.    The  Theme 

A.     The  Coming  of  Death  and  the  Debate  of  the  Living  and 

the  Dead 

In  substance  the  alliterative  Death  and  Life  obviously  be- 
longs to  the  vast  body  of  mediceval  literature  which  has  for  its 
theme  the  inevitableness  and  the  destructive  might  of  Death,  a 
topic  of  which  the  Middle  Ages  never  wearied  and  upon  which 
the  authors  of  the  period  exhausted  their  powers  of  rhetoric  and 
imagination.  The  conception  of  Death  as  the  irresistible  foe  of 
mortality  is,  of  course,  universal.  Classical  literature  contributed 
its  part  to  the  medieval  stream,  as  in  Horace's 

Pallida  Mors  aequo  pulsat  pede  pauperum  tabernas 
Regumque  turris. 

But  the  chief  source  was  naturally  scripture,  with  its  many  texts 
embodying  the  warning  of  the  inevitability  of  Death  and  the 
uncertainty  of  its  hour.^  Such  motives  are  elaborated  in  mediseval 
literature,  with  growing  insistence  on  Death's  hostility  and 
appalling  voraciousness.  Characteristic  embodiments  in  English 
are  such  poems  as  Erthe  upon  Erthe,-  Death, ^  The  Enemies  of 
Man,*  The  Signs  of  Death.^  One  of  the  commonest  of  mediaeval 
formulae  for  the  universality  of  death  is  the  ubi  sunt,  wherein  the 
author  reviews  all  classes  of  mankind,  conceiving  them  as  leveled 
alike  by  the  scythe  of  the  grim  destroyer.  Often  enough  the  uhi 
sunt  is  boastfully  pronounced  by  Death  himself,  as  in  Cursor 
Mundi,  330  ff.,  a  passage  which  is  paralleled  in  Death's  enumera- 
tion of  his  conquests  in  Death  and  Lijfe.  A  special  development 
of  this  motive,  which  brings  us  nearer  to  the  present  poem,  is  the 
Dance  of  Death,  and  its  probable  original  in  literature  and  art,  the 

^E.g.,  Psalms  88,  49;  Ecclesiasies  3,  19;  Romans  o,  12;  1  Thessalonimis 
5,  2;  James  4,  14. 

'Anglia,  xxvi,  216;  E.  E.  T.  »S'.,  cxu. 

^E.  E.  T.  a.,  XLix,  168. 

*Engli8che  Studien,  ix,  440.  "  E.  E.  T.  S.,  cxvn. 

2 


238  Deatli  and  Liffe:  An  AUileralive  Poem 

Dialogue  or  Debate  of  the  Three  Living  Men  and  the  Three  Dead 
Men.  TJie  source  of  the  legend  is  oriental.  In  a  sixth  century- 
Arabian  poem  the  poet  and  a  king  are  passing  some  graves,  when 
they  hear  the  dead  call  out  to  the  monarch :  "  What  you  are,  we 
were;  what  we  are,  you  shall  be."  A  thirteenth  century  French 
poem  by  Baudoin  de  Conde  gives  the  standard  form  of  the  legend. 
Three  Living  Men  express  one  after  another  their  terror  at  the 
sight  of  the  Dead.     Then  the  Dead,  in  order,  address  the  Living: 

noiiea  quel  sommea, 
Tel  ser^s-vous;  et  tel  comme  ore  estes,  fumes." 

Sometimes  the  Living  and  Dead  speak  alternately.  The  reduction 
of  the  indefinite  number  of  Dead  in  the  Arabian  legend  to  three 
involved  making  the  Living  Men  Tepresentatives  of  Youth,  Middle 
Age,  and  Old  Age,  thus  enforcing  the  moral  that  Death  comes 
alike  at  all  periods  of  mortal  life.  In  one  form  or  another  this 
theme  had  a  tremendous  popularity.  The  innumerable  dialogues 
of  Death  and  Life  found  in  all  languages  are  mostly  fragments  of 
it.  Young  men  and  old,  man  and  woman,  peasant,  pope,  and 
prince,  with  one  voice  record  the  vain  protest  against  dissolution 
and  receive  the  same  grim  answer  from  the  cadavers  or  skeletons 
which  are  their  other  selves.'^ 

The  Dance  of  Death  or  the  danse  macabre  is  but  a  grotesque 
extension  of  the  Three  Dead  Men  and  the  Three  Living  Men.^  It 
appears  first  in  the  fifteenth  century,  in  the  form  of  a  series  of 
art  representations  of  men  and  women  of  all  classes,  each  led  to 
the  sepulchre  by  a  skeleton.  The  designs  are  accompanied  by  texts 
similar  to  those  already  discussed. 

The  protest  of  living  things  and  the  blind  ruthlessness  of  the 
destroyer  are  evidently  the  motivating  ideas  of  our  debate.  It  is 
unlikely  that  the  danse  macabre  conception  was  present  in  the 
author's  mind,  since  the  great  development  of  this  motive  was 
later  than  the  probable  date  of  Death  and  Life.    He  must,  however, 

*  Montaiglon,  L' Alphabet  de  la  Mort  de  Hans  Holbein,  Paris,  1856. 

'For  examples  see  Montaiglon,  Recueil  de  Poesies,  v,  60  ff.;  D'Ancona 
Teatro  Italimio,  i,  550;  Steinschneider,  op.  cit. 

"  This  is  the  view  of  Kunstle,  Die  Legende  der  drei  Lebenden  und  der  drei 
Toten,  und  der  Totendanz;  but  see  Hammond,  Latin  Texts  of  the  Dance  of 
Death,  Modem  Philology,  vm,  399. 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  239 

have  known  plenty  of  examples  of  the  Trois  morts  dispute  and  the 
material  would  have  come  to  him  also  through  The  Parlement  of 
the  Thre  Ages,  where  its  influence  is  palpable.  One  important 
point  of  difference,  however,  is  to  be  noted  between  the  present 
debate  and  that  of  the  Trois  morts.  In  the  latter  it  is  not  Life 
and  Death  who  hold  converse  but  the  living  and  the  dead.  The 
Dead,  however,  easily  become  representatives  of  Death  itself.  In 
the  Dance  of  Death,  for  example,  the  skeleton  came  to  be  inter- 
preted as  a  personification  of  Death,  and  not  merely  as  a  mortal 
relic  of  humanity.  The  Living  Men,  moreover,  are  types  of  human 
life,  and  in  some  cases  their  place  is  taken  by  an  abstraction,  who 
still  preserves  the  role  of  helpless  victim.  Thus  the  Zwiegesprach 
zwischen  dem  Lehen  und  dem  Tode  ^  proves  upon  examination  to 
be  simply  a  Trois  morts  dispute  with  the  personifications.  So  also 
in  the  Dehat  et  Proces  de  Nature  et  de  Jeunesse,  Nature  is  Death 
and  Youth  a  type  of  all  who  live.^" 

The  conception  of  death  as  a  skeleton,  which  through  the 
influence  of  the  Dance  of  Death,  became  universal  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  was  long  antedated  by  other  forms  of  the  personification. 
To  these  we  may  now  turn  in  explanation  of  the  grisly  figure  who 
in  our  poem  smites  Life's  children  in  the  dust.  Throughout  the 
literature  of  death  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  allegory  and 
personification.  Thus  in  Horace  the  Atra  Cura  sits  behind  the  horse- 
man as  he  rides.  In  scripture  the  most  vivid  representation  is  in 
Revelations,  6,  8 :  "  And  I  looked,  and  behold  a  pale  horse :  and 
his  name  that  sat  on  him  was  Death,  and  Hell  followed  with  him." 
The  mediaeval  figures  of  Death  are  infinitely  varied.  Sometimes 
it  is  a  youth,  sometimes  a  man,  sometimes  a  beast.  The  weapon  is 
a  bow,  or  lance,  or  scythe,  or  sword.  The  idea  of  Death's  sovereignty 
is  often  suggested  by  a  crown.  Occasionally  the  figure  is  a  woman, 
as  in  the  representations  of  the  crucifixion  (See  below,  p.  243),  in 
the  Three  Enemies  of  Man,  and  in  Death  and  Liffe.^^    The  associa- 

"Freybe,  Das  Memento  Mori,  Gotha,  1909,  86  ff. 

"  Le  D^bat  des  Deux  Demoyselles,  Paris,  1825. 

"  See  J.  L.  Wessely,  Die  Gestalten  des  Todes  und  Des  Teufels  in  der  dar- 
stellenden  Kunst;  Th.  v.  Frimmcl,  Beitrdge  zu  einer  Ikonographie  des  Todes 
in  Mittheil.  der  k.  k.  Centralcomm.  zar  Erforsch.  u.  Erhalt  der  Baudenk- 
male,  N.  F.,  xrn-xvii  (1887-1891);  Kraus,  Geschichte  der  Cli/ristlichen 
Kunst,  n,  446-7. 


240  Death  and  Liffe:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

tion  of  Death  with  Satau  led  to  the  adoption  of  many  grotesque 
and  horrible  characteristics  from  the  current  demonology.  This 
influence  is  particularly  evident  in  Death  and  Liffe,  where  the 
"  long  tushes "  and  the  neb  of  the  nose  reaching  to  the  navel 
betray  the  hellish  origin  of  the  conception,  while  the  leanness  of 
the  body  and  the  deathly  hue  of  the  face  suggest  the  cadaver. 
More  specifically,  however,  the  description  of  Dame  Death  in  our 
poem  was  written  under  the  influence  of  a  considerable  tradition 
of  monsters  and  grisly  ghosts  in  the  poetry  of  the  alliterative 
revival  (See  below,  p.  254  and  in  the  notes  to  lines  151  ff.). 

It  is  unnecessary  to  allude  further  to  the  mediasval  representa- 
tions of  the  assaults  of  the  monster  Death  on  human  kind.  The 
subject  constitutes,  as  is  well  known,  one  of  the  standard  themes 
of  the  morality  play.  In  the  Pride  of  Life  the  action  approximates 
a  debate.  The  King  of  Life,  boasting  of  his  power  and  flattered 
by  Strength  and  Hele,  sets  out  to  conquer  death,  but  finds  that 
he  must  share  the  lot  of  all  mortality.  It  is  important  to  note 
that  the  development  of  these  plays  and  the  great  popularity  of 
the  Dance  of  Death  fall  together  in  the  fifteenth  century.  There 
can  be  no  question  that  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  saw  an 
enormous  increase  in  the  emphasis  on  the  idea  of  death  and 
particularly  on  its  more  horrible  aspects.  Male  ^^  notes  that  the 
grewsome  image  of  death  does  not  appear  frequently  in  mediaeval 
art  until  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century.  "  Ce  cadavre  qui  sort 
du  tombeau  pour  nous  ensigner  non  pas  la  neante  mais  le  serieux 
de  la  vie,  viola  un  personage  tout  nouveau  dans  Fart.  Le  XIII 
siecle  ne  nous  offre  rien  de  pareil."  The  change  is  indicated  in 
the  different  spirit  in  which  death  is  represented  in  the  Trois  Marts 
and  the  danse  macabre. 

••  Dans  le  dit  des  trois  morts  et  des  trois  vifs  la  mort  se  presente,  sans 
doute,  sous  un  aspect  redoubtable.  Mais,  au  fond,  elle  est  plein  de  cl6inence. 
EUe  parle  rudement  aux  grands  de  ce  monde  mais  elle  leur  laisse  un  delai; 
elle  ne  met  pas  sa  main  seche  sur  leur  epaule.  Elle  a  6t6  suscit^e  par  Dieu 
pour  4mouvoir  le  p^cheur,  non  pas  pour  le  frapper.  Dans  la  Danse  macabre, 
au  contraire,  toute  id6e  de  piti6  disparait. 

This  new  emphasis,  Male  believes,  results  from  the  efforts  of  the 
jnendicant  friars  to  terrify  the  multitudes.     The  great  pestilences 

"  L'Art  religieux,  375  flf. 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  241 

of  the  fourteenth  century  are  also  to  be  counted  as  an  influence 
in  burning  on  the  consciousnesses  of  artists  and  poets  the  image 
of  mortality.  The  vision  of  destruction  in  Death  and  Life,  echoing 
and  amplifying  as  it  does  similar  materials  in  Piers  Plowman 
(See  below,  p.  247)  is  in  harmony,  therefore,  with  the  dominant 
temper  of  the  literature  of  the  late  fourteenth  and  of  the  fifteenth 
centuries.  The  contemporary  works  of  Lydgate  are  full  of  reflec- 
tions on  dissolution,^^  death  and  change  being  indeed  his  principal 
themes;  echoes  of  the  Trois  morts  dispute  are  to  be  found  in 
Henryson  ^*;  and  Dunbar's  poetry  is  steeped  in  the  grotesque 
horror  of  the  tomb.  The  elaborate  didactic  allegories  of  the  time 
almost  invariably  introduce  Death  in  a  role  similar  to  that  played 
by  him  in  the  Moralities. ^^ 

The  representation  of  Death  in  our  poem  as  a  demon  rather  than 
as  a  skeleton  is  an  archaic  feature  and  points  to  fourteenth  century 
tradition  as  a  primary  influence  in  the  author's  conception. 

B.     The  Conflict  of  Death  and  Life  and  the  Victory  of  Life. 

In  the  materials  we  have  thus  far  considered  the  might  of  Death 
stands  alone  and  unopposed.  The  protests  of  mortal  creatures  are 
weak  and  impotent.  Life  is  a  helpless  victim,  rather  than  a  worthy 
antagonist  of  Death.  The  conception  of  an  opposition  between 
two  great  principles  of  Death  and  Life,  in  which  the  latter  is  not 
only  coequal  with  its  enemy  but  ultimately  triumphant  over  him, 
in  other  words,  the  real  debate  of  Death  and  Life  may,  I  believe, 
be  traced  to  two  widely  divergent  sources,  each  contributing 
material  of  considerable  importance  in  mediaeval  literature,  and 
blending,  in  our  poem,  in  a  truly  curious  and  characteristic  fashion. 
The  first  of  these  is  to  be  found  in  the  popular  consciousness, 
inherited  from  pagan  times,  of  a  titanic  struggle  pervading  all 
nature,  and  in  the  primitive  faith  which  sees  the  life  principle 
temporarily  obscured  but  never  wholly  conquered — perishing,  so 
far  as  the  eye  can  see,  from  the  face  of  the  earth  in  winter  but 

"  His,  Damce  of  Maohabree  is  the  moat  important  English  text  of  the 
Dcmce  of  Death. 

"  The  Reasoning  betwixt  Deth  and  Man,  Scottish  Text  Society,  in,  134. 

^  See  Lydgate's  Assembly  of  the  Gods,  stanzas  84  flF. ;  Hawes'  The  Pastime 
of  Pleasure,  and  especially  his  Example  of  Virtue. 


242  Deaih  and  Liffe:  A71  Alliterative  Poem 

welling  up  eternal  in  the  spring.  The  record  of  this  belief  is 
written  in  primitive  myth  and  ritual,  and  it  survives  the  stage  of 
civilization  which  gave  it  birth  in  innumerable  folk  customs  and 
in  the  themes  and  motives  of  popular  literature.  The  ancient 
ceremony  of  the  expulsion  of  Winter  or  Death,  a  central  theme  of 
mediaeval  folk-drama,^*^  supplied  the  materials  for  the  earliest  of 
medijEval  debates,  The  Conflictus  Veris  et  Hiemis,  to  which 
allusion  has  already  been  made,  and  contention  poems  on  the  same 
subject,  popular  in  essence,  however  much  they  may  be  transformed 
by  literary  and  academic  influences,  are  common  in  all  the 
European  languages. ^'^  It  is  no  mere  accident  that  this  contest  of 
Winter  and  Summer  heads  the  list,  in  time  and  perhaps  also  in 
popularity,  of  mediaeval  debate  literature.  The  motive,  indeed, 
pervades  the  whole  debate  tradition.  In  poem  after  poem  we  may 
recognize  the  same  opponents,  altered  in  name  only  and  in  external 
character.  Thus  Spring,  or  the  vital  principle,  reappears  as  Youth 
in  contrast  to  Age;  as  Wine,  representing  the  untrammeled  joy 
of  living,  in  contrast  to  Water,  the  symbol  of  asceticism;  as  the 
Flower  in  contrast  to  the  Leaf;  as  the  Nightingale,  the  bird  of 
spring  and  youth  and  merriment,  in  contrast  to  the  Owl,  stern 
apostle  of  Winter  and  the  mortification  of  the  flesh.  The 
sympathies  of  the  author  are,  of  course,  not  always  on  the  side 
of  the  vital  as  opposed  to  the  ascetic  principle.  A  large  number 
of  mediaeval  debates  are  to  be  regarded  as  single  combats  in  the 
great  battle  between  the  virtues  and  the  vices;  and  here  it  is 
inevitably  the  stricter  ideal  which  is  championed  against  the  more 
liberal,  or  the  more  spiritual  against  the  more  material.  But  even 
when  the  author  officially  swears  allegiance  to  religion  and 
asceticism,  he  is  sometimes  wont  to  allow  the  Devil's  advocate  to 
plead  with  a  dangerous  eloquence.  In  the  Goliardic  pieces  the 
graceless  poet  openly  espouses  the  Devil's  cause.  From  one  point 
of  view  these  expressions  are  due  simply  to  the  welling  up  of 
human  instinct  against  an  abnormal  asceticism;  but  the  champion- 
ship of  the  life  principle  in  its  various  hypostases  undoubtedly 
derived  support  also  from  a  literary  tradition  deeply  grounded  in 
primitive  culture  and  religion. 

"  See  E.  K.  Chambers,  The  Medieval  Stage,  vol.  i,  Book  11. 
"  See   Uhland's   essay    on   the    folk-drama    of   the    seasons,    Gesammelte 
Schriften,  in,  17  flf. 


James  H.  Hanford  and  Jolin  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  243 

Thus  did  instinctive  mediaeval  faitli  in  life  maintain  itself 
unorthodoxly  against  a  whole  theological  and  moralistic  artillery 
of  memento  moris.  Meanwhile  Christian  theology  provided,  in 
salvation,  the  triumph  won  for  mankind  by  Christ's  sacrifices  upon 
the  cross,  its  own  transcendent  weapon  against  death.  It  was 
indeed  partly  with  a  view  to  heightening  this  triumph  that  the 
terrible  power  of  the  destroyer  was  magnified.  Already  in  Scrip- 
ture there  is  implicit  the  conception  of  a  mightly  struggle :  "  I 
will  ransom  them  from  the  power  of  the  grave ;  I  will  redeem  them 
from  death.  Ero  mors  tua  o  mors"  {Hosea,  13,  14)  "  So  that 
when  this  corruptible  shall  have  put  on  incorruption,  and  this 
mortal  shall  have  put  on  immortality,  then  shall  he  bring  to  pass 
the  saying  that  is  written :  Death  is  swallowed  up  in  victory," 
(7  Corinthians,  15,  54).  The  rendering  of  this  struggle  in  terms 
of  concrete  allegory  was,  for  the  Middle  Ages,  inevitable.  As  early 
as  the  ninth  century  the  essential  motive  of  our  debate  in  its 
theological  aspect  is  neatly  formulated  in  the  Victimm  paschali, 
an  Easter  sequence  ascribed  to  Wipo  of  Burgundia,  known  in  the 
liturgy  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  and  still  retained,  it  is  said, 
in  the  Eoman  missal. 

Mors  et  vita  duello  conflixere  mirando; 
Dux  vitae  mortuus  regnat  vivus." 

Similar  expressions  are  not  uncommon  in  the  hymns. 

The  allegory  of  the  Death  and  Life  conflict  on  the  cross  is 
embodied  also  in  a  widespread  theme  of  Christian  art.  The  two 
figures,  Life  and  Death,  appear  together  beside  that  of  Christ  in 
representations  of  the  crucifixion,  Life  crowned  on  the  right.  Death 
falling  or  standing  with  broken  lance  upon  the  left.  Life  is 
generally  represented  as  a  female  figure;  Death  as  a  man,  a 
woman,  a  beast,  or  (in  the  fifteenth  century)  a  skeleton.  Their 
positions  are  connected  with  the  general  symbolism  which  made 
the  right  of  the  cross  a  token  of  eternal  life,  the  left  of  death 
and  damnation.^^  The  representations  are  accompanied  by  texts 
based  on  scriptural  passages.^" 

"  Daniel,  Thesaurus  Hynmologicus,  n,  95. 

"Durandus,  Rationale,  Lib.  vii,  cap.  xliv:  Per  sinistram  enim  mortalitas, 
per  dextram  immortalitas  designatur,  secundum  illud:  Leva  ejxis  sub  capite 
meo,  et  dextera  eju^  amplexabitiir  me. 

"  For  example,  in  an  eleventh  century  illumination :  "  Mors  devicta  peris 


244  Death  and  Liffe:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

The  employment  of  this  motive  in  art  is  antecedent  to  the 
developed  allegorical  debate  of  Death  and  Life,  and  is  to  be  counted 
one  of  the  chief  formative  elements  in  its  development.  A  similar 
relation  exists  between  the  disputation  of  Church  and  Synagogue 
and  the  allegorical  figures  of  the  Church  in  triumph  and  the 
Synagogue  in  defeat,  also  found  in  medieval  portrayals  of  the 
crucifixion.  Meanwliile  other  elements  are  contributed  by  the 
apocryphal  Harrowing  of  Hell,  interpreted  in  the  medigeval 
accounts  as  an  allegorical  combat  between  Christ  and  Satan.  The 
struggle  for  the  salvation  of  man's  soul  finally  merges  into  the 
general  battle  of  the  Virtues  and  the  Vices,  with  Christ  engaged 
in  a  perpetual  warfare  against  Satan,  Sin,  and  Death. 

We  have,  then,  two  distinct  aspects  of  the  conflict  of  Death  and 
Life,  each  receiving  allegorical  embodiment  throughout  the  Middle 
Ages;  namely,  the  opposition  of  the  life  principle  to  Death  as  a 
physical  fact,  and  the  triumph  of  Eternal  Life  over  both  natural 
death  and  the  "  secunda  mors,"  or  the  death  of  the  soul.  These 
two  motives  are  combined  in  Death  and  Liffe.  The  exultant  boast 
of  Death  and  the  vision  of  destruction  are,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  an  embodiment  of  the  general  theme  of  the  coming  of  Death 
to  all  mankind.  Lady  Liffe,  in  this  aspect,  is  one  with  the  King 
of  Life  in  the  morality  or  with  the  Lord  of  Life  in  Piers  Plowman, 
though  the  poet's  viewpoint  is  different  in  that  his  sympathies  are 
on  the  side  of  the  lovely  knights  and  ladies  who  must  fall  before 
Death's  falchion,  while  he  represents  Death  herself,  not  as  God's 
chastening  instrument,  but  as  a  ruthless  alien  power  who  brings 
to  a  sudden  conclusion  the  innocent  joy  of  mortal  life.  But  Lady 
Liffe  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  poem  is  obviously  something  more 
than  a  simple  type  of  all  that  lives  and  is  subject  to  the  power  of 
Death.  Instead  of  playing  the  role  of  a  helpless  victim,  like  the 
frail  creatures  who  surround  her,  she  is  herself  a  power,  a  goddess — 
exempt  from  chance  and  change.  She  is,  indeed,  a  symbol  of  the 
vital  principle  itself,  which  animates  all  nature  and  gives  life 
and  joy  to  all  created  things.  She  opposes  the  might  of  Death, 
not  by  arms,  but  by  a  challenge  of  her  right,  and  by  an  appeal 

qui  Christum  vincere  gestis."  A  full  treatment  of  the  Life  and  Death 
motive  in  art  is  given  by  P.  Weiber,  Geistliches  Schauspiel  und  kirchliche 
Eunst,  63  ff. 


James  H.  Ranford  and  John  M.  Stead-man,  Jr.  245 

to  the  high  King  of  Heaven,  who  quickly  bids  Death  cease  from 
her  ravages  among  Life's  children.  Still,  in  her  words  to  Dame 
Death,  Liffe  can  do  little  more  than  protest  and  vaguely  threaten. 
To  Death's  recitation  of  her  conquests  there  is  no  effective  reply, 
until  she  is  betrayed  by  her  arrogance  into  adding  to  them  the  name 
of  Christ : 

Have  not  I  lusted  gentlye  with  lesu  of  heauen? 

He  was  frayd  of  my  fface  in  ffreshest  of  time. 

Yett  I  knocked  him  on  the  crosse  &  carued  throughe  his  hart. 

Then  suddenly  the  whole  aspect  of  the  contest  changes.  The 
"  witless  words "  of  Death  afford  Liffe  the  opportunity  for  a 
triumphant  answer.  Out  of  her  own  mouth  is  Death  condemned. 
For  Life  in  Christ  has  been  victorious  over  Death.  At  this  point 
the  earlier  pagan  conception  of  Life  merges  into  the  theological 
and  Christian.  Henceforth  she  is  eternal  Life,  salvation,  the 
conqueror  of  Death  and  Satan.  She  was  upon  the  cross  with 
Christ,  her  bower  "  bigged  forever  "  in  his  heart.  In  that  great 
battle  she  had  beaten  Death  forever,  and,  following  her  to  Hell, 
had  redeemed  from  thence  Death's  captives.  In  this  part  of  the 
allegory  Liffe  becomes  for  the  time  a  mere  abstraction.  The  author 
has  difficulty  even  in  keeping  the  figure  of  speech  which  distin- 
guishes her  from  Christ  himself.  But  at  the  close  of  the  poem 
she  again  becomes  the  kindly  Lady  "  with  lookes  so  gay,"  caring 
for  her  children,  raising  them  from  the  earth  where  they  lie  slain, 
and  hying  over  the  hills  with  her  winsome  troop.  The  two 
divergent  conceptions  are  here  beautifully  blended.  The  vital  spirit 
which  pervades  all  nature  has  become  one  with  God,  and  the 
yearning  faith  in  its  permanence,  darkened  by  the  compelling 
phenomenon  of  death,  is  illumined  and  fortified  by  the  idea  of 
the  resurrection.  The  poet  has  thus  transcended  the  narrow 
bounds  of  mediaeval  ascetic  thought,  in  which  all  material  things 
are  evil  and  nature  itself  an  ally  of  Death  and  Hell,  and  has 
unconsciously  and  half  accidentally  adopted  the  more  modern  point 
of  view,  constructing  out  of  purely  mediaeval  materials  a  work 
which  constitutes  a  dim  prophecy  of  the  Renaissance. 


M6  Death  and  Liffe:  An  Alliterative  Poem 


VI.    Immediate  Sources 

A.  Piers  Plowman.  That  the  author  of  Death  and  Liffe  was 
acquainted  with  The  Vision  of  Piers  Plowman  and  derived  from 
that  work  much  of  the  essential  material  of  his  poem  is  beyond 
question.  Skeat  went  so  far  as  to  *say  that  he  wrote  in  imitation  of 
Piers  Plowman,  and  Manly  does  not  hesitate  to  class  Death  and 
Life  among  those  works  which  continued  the  Piers  Plowman  tradi- 
tion into  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  It  is  the  purpose 
of  the  present  discussion  to  define  in  some  detail  the  extent  and  the 
limits  of  this  debt. 

The  central  motive  of  the  theological  conflict  is  embodied  in  a 
passage  contained  in  the  B  and  C  versions,  in  which  Life  contends 
with  Death  and  triumphs  through  the  resurrection. 

'Ho  shal  louste  with  lesus,'  quath  ich   •  '  lewes,  other  scrybes?' 
'  Nay,'  quath  Faith,  '  bote  the  feond   •   and  Fals-dom-to-deye. 

Deith  seith  he  wol  for-do  •  and  a-down  brynge 

Al  that  lyueth  other  loketh  •  a  londe  and  a  watere. 

Lyf  seith  that  he  lyeth  •  and  hath  leyde  hus  lyf  to  wedde, 

That  for  al  Deth  can  do  ■  with-inne  thre  dayes, 

To  vvalke  and  fecche  fro  the  feonde  •  Peers  frut  the  Plouhman, 

And  legge  hit  ther  hym  lyketh  •  and  Lucifer  bynde, 

And  forbete  and  bringe  adoun  •  bale  and  deth  for  euere; 
0  mors,  ero  mors  tiM.' 


An(?  dede  men  for  that  deon  •  comen  oute  of  deope  graues, 
And  tolden  why  that  tempest  •  so  longe  tyme  durede. 
'  For  a  byter  bataile  '  •  the  dede  bodye  seyde, 
'  Lyf  and  Deth  in  this  deorknesse   •  her  on  for-doth  that  other, 
Ac  shal  no  wi3t  wite  witerliehe   •  ho  shal  haue  mastrye, 
Er  Soneday,  a-boute  sonne-rysynge  '   •  and  sank  with  that  til  erthe.* 

The  conception  of  an  actual  debate  between  the  powers  of  Life  and 
Death  is  here  clearly  implied,  and  though  the  general  theme  is,  as 
we  have  seen,  a  common  one,  verbal  similarities  ^  would  appear  to 
render  it  quite  certain  that  the  motive  of  the  second  half  of  Death 
and  Liffe  was  suggested  primarily  by  the  above  quoted  passage. 
In  both  Piers  Ploivman  and  Death  and  Liffe  the  account  of  the 

^C,  Passus  XXI,  26-35  and  64-70.     Cf.  B,  Passus  xvni,  29-36  and  62-68. 
*  See  notes  to  line  345. 


James  H.  Hanf&rd  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  247 

battle  on  the  cross  culminates  in  the  triumphant  descent  into  Hell. 
The  resemblance  between  the  two  is  on  the  whole  confined  to  well 
established  features  which  had  become  traditional  in  the  numerous 
narrative  and  dramatic  renderings  of  this  part  of  the  apocryphal 
Gospel  of  Nicodemus,  the  biblical  original  of  the  legend.  These 
are  the  cry  " atiolite  portas"  at  the  entrance;  the  light  which  pro- 
ceeds from  Christ;  the  confusion  of  the  demons;  the  binding  of 
Lucifer;  and  the  rescue  of  the  Hebrew  captives.  The  description 
in  Death  and  Life  is  at  once  briefer  and  more  picturesque.  The 
author  has  omitted  the  preliminary  debate  between  the  Daughters 
of  God  and  sacrificed  the  lengthy  theological  discussions,  empha- 
sizing the  idea  of  a  dramatic  conflict  and  adding  such  touches  as 
that  of  Lucifer  hurling  fiends  on  the  fire  in  his  fury.  He  has, 
moreover,  assimilated  the  whole  to  the  allegory  of  Death  and  Life. 
Skeat's  implication  that  the  two  passages  are  substantially  identical 
gives  a  wrong  impression.  There  are,  however,  a  few  detailed  par- 
allels which  confirm  the  conclusion  that  the  account  in  Death  and 
Life  is  primarily  based  on  that  in  Piers  Plowman.  (See  notes  to 
lines  40-iff.) 

In  like  manner  the  author  of  Death  and  Life  seems  to  have 
drawn  material  for  the  description  of  Death's  destructive  assaults 
upon  the  children  of  Liffe  from  the  later  account  in  Piers  Plowman 
of  the  ravages  of  Death,  who  is  represented  as  coming  in  the  train 
of  Antichrist,  accompanied  by  Disease  and  Old  Age,  against  Lyf, 
here  conceived,  not  as  Everlasting  Life,  but  as  a  type  of  sinful 
man.^  Definite  proof  that  the  author  of  Death  and  Life  has  this 
part  of  Piers  Plowman  in  mind  is  afforded  by  the  figure  of  Sir 
Comfort  (Cf.  Death  and  Liffe,  177-8),  who  in  the  passage  referred 
to  is  summoned  by  "  the  lord  that  lyued  after  lust "  to  bear  his 
banner  against  Death.  The  association  of  Death  with  the  seven 
deadly  sins  explains  the  presence  in  Death  and  Life  of  Pride,  who 
precedes  the  steps  of  Death  as  a  sort  of  herald  (Cf.  157  and  183). 

A  further  parallel  between  Death  and  Liffe  and  Piers  Plowman 
is  to  be  found  in  the  introductory  visions.  Conventional  as  the 
materials  are,  the  parallels  are  sufficiently  close  to  warrant  the 
conclusion  that  the  Death  and  Liffe  author  followed  in  outline  the 
first  twenty  lines  of  the  Prologue.     The  allegorical  map  of  Death 

*  C.  Passus  xxiii,  69  ff.     Cf.  B.  Passus  xx,  68  ff. 


248  Death  and  Liffe:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

and  Lijfe  is  modelled  after  that  in  the  earlier  work,  and  verbal 
similarities  are  closer  and  more  numerous  in  the  visions  than 
elsewhere  in  the  two  poems.  (See  notes.)  The  Piers  Plowman 
vision,  with  its  simple  and  logical  allegory,  is  plainly  the  original. 
Thus  the  "  field  full  of  folk,"  suggested  by  Matthew  13,  38  ("  The 
field  is  the  world"),  ceases  in  Death  and  Lijfe  to  be  a  representa- 
tion of  all  mankind  and  becomes  a  particular  chivalric  gathering, 
though  traces  of  the  original  conception  persist  in  the  phrase  "  all 
the  world  full  of  wealth  "  and  in  the  presence  of  swains  as  well 
as  knights  in  Death  and  Lijfe.  So  also  the  allegorical  tower  and 
dungeon  are  transmuted  into  a  whole  panorama  of  towns  and 
castles,  and  in  general  the  description  of  the  landscape  in  Death 
and  Lijfe  is  much  elaborated.  The  more  essential  inspiration  for 
this  part  of  the  poem  comes,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  from  an  altogether 
different  source.     (See  section  C,  below.) 

B.  De  Planctu  Naturae.  It  will  be  apparent  from  the  above 
comparison  that  the  author  of  our  poem,  however  much  he  may 
have  depended  on  Piers  Plowman  for  his  material,  has  but  little 
in  common  with  the  stern  moralist  of  that  great  work.  His  treat- 
ment of  the  motives  which  he  appropriates  reflects  a  widely 
different  point  of  view.  Thus  even  the  coming  of  Death,  handled 
by  the  author  of  the  B  version  with  the  grim  satisfaction  of  the 
mediaeval  preacher,  is  rendered  in  Death  and  Life  with  a  poetic 
and  imaginative  rather  than  with  a  moral  emphasis,  and  much 
the  same  may  be  said  of  the  treatment  of  the  crucifixion  and  the 
Harrowing  of  Hell.  These  elements,  moreover,  are  neither  the 
most  characteristic  nor  the  most  attractive  portions  of  the  poem.  It 
is  in  the  conception  of  the  lovely  Lady  Liffe,  not  in  her  theological 
aspect,  but  as  the  winsome  being  who  invigorates  all  earthly  things 
with  her  smile,  that  the  charm  and  freshness  of  the  piece  chiefly 
reside.  And  for  this  conception  there  is  no  satisfactory  counterpart 
in  Piers  Plowman.  Lyf,  the  type  of  corrupt  mortality  ripening 
toward  destruction,  who  in  Passus  XXIII  is  assailed  by  Deth  and 
Elde,  obviously  has  no  relation  to  the  "  alma  Venus  genetrix  "  of 
Death  and  Lijfe.  Nor  is  she,  as  Skeat  maintains,  the  Lady  Anima 
of  the  Vision  of  Dowel  in  Passus  XI,  though  the  relationship  here 
is  somewhat  closer.  Anima  in  Piers  Plowman,  is  represented, 
according  to  the  conventional  allegory,  as  a  lady  dwelling  in  the 
castle  of  the  bodv.    The  senses  are  enclosed  in  the  castle  "  for  loue 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  249 

of  the  lady  Anima  that  Lyf  is  ynempned,"  a  detail  suggestive  of 
the  affection  which  all  creatures  have  for  Lady  Liffe.  Here.,  however, 
the  resemblance  stops.  The  allegorical  being  of  Lady  Anima  is 
confined  within  the  pinfold  of  the  body,  while  Lady  Liffe  is  a  deity, 
the  magna  parens  of  living  things.  Her  abode  is  on  that  new 
Olympus,  where  the  mediaeval  deities  of  pagan  mythology — 
Venus,  Fortune,  Dame  Nature  and  many  others — hold  their  state. 
Enough  has  already  been  said  of  her  character  and  function  to 
show  with  which  one  of  the  divinities  she  is  to  be  associated;  her 
own  words,  addressed  to  the  destroyer  Death,  betray  her  origin :  •* 

&  as  a  theefe  in  a  rout  thou  throngeth  them  to  death, 
that  neither  Mature,  nor  I  flor  none  of  thy  deeds 
may  bring  up  our  bearnes.° 

Dame  Liffe  is,  indeed,  but  a  hypostasis  of  Dame  Nature,  a  being  to 
whom  the  Middle  Ages  had  given  vivid  reality  as  the  embodiment 
of  God's  creative  power.  Closer  examination  of  the  Anima  passage 
in  Piers  Plowman  will  reveal  the  source  from  which  the  author  of 
Death  and  Liffe  may  have  derived  the  first  suggestion  for  a 
transferal  to  Life  of  the  attributes  of  Nature.  The  castle  of  Anima 
was  made  by  Kind.  "  What  sort  of  thing  is  this  Kind?  "  asks  the 
poet. 

'  Kyndc  is  a  creator,'  quath  Wit   •  '  of  alle  kyne  thynges. 
Fader  and  formour  •  of  al  that  forth  groweth. 
The  which  is  god  grettest  '  that  gynnynge  hadde  neuere. 
Lord  of  lytf  and  of  lyght  •  of  lysse  and  of  payne 
Angeles  and  alle  thyng  •  aren  at  hus  wil; 
Man  is  hym  most  lyk  •  of  members  and  of  face. 
And  semblable  in  soule  to  god  •  bote  yf  synne  hit  make.' 

Having  once  adopted,  from  the  hint  afforded  in  this  passage,  the 
idea  of  associating  the  figures  of  Life  and  Nature,  the  Death  and 
Liffe  poet  did  not  rely  on  Piers  Plowman  for  the  details  of  his 
picture.  He  turned  rather  to  the  richer  image  of  Nature  in  the 
well-known  De  Planctu  Naturce  of  Alanus   de  Insulis,®  a  work 

*  The  following  discussion  is  adapted  from  my  article,  "  Dame  Nature 
and  Lady  Liffe,"  Modern  Philology,  xv,  5,  313. 

"Death  amd  Liffe,  251-253. 

•Reprinted  in  Wright's  Anglo-Latin  Satirical  Poets,  vol.  i.  My  quota- 
tions are  from  the  English  translation  by  Douglas  M.  Moffat,  Yale  Studies 
in  English. 


250  Death  and  Life:    An  Alliterative  Poem 

which  had  furnished  Jean  de  Meung,  Chaucer,  and  many  others 
with  the  materials  of  their  descriptions  of  the  Goddess  of  Kind. 

ISTatura,  with  Alanus,  is  the  parent  of  living  things.  Like  Lady 
Liffe,  she  appears  to  the  poet  in  a  vision,  radiant  and  goddess-like, 
crowned  with  a  heavenly  diadem.  Her  neck  and  breasts  are 
described  in  terms  closely  paralleled  in  the  debate.  Special 
emphasis  is  laid  throughout  the  work  on  her  love  function,  a 
characteristic  which  reappears  in  the  picture  of  Lady  Liffe.  At  the 
approach  of  Natura  the  instinct  of  life  and  love  springs  up  in  all 
things.  "The  earth,  lately  stripped  of  its  adornments  by  the 
thieving  winter,  through  the  generosity  of  spring  donned  a  purple 
tunic  of  flowers."    So  also  as  Liffe  draws  near 

Blossomes  &  burgens  breathed  ffull  sweete, 

fflowers  fHourished  in  the  frith  where  shee  fforth  stepedd, 

&  the  grasse  that  was  gray  greened  beliue. 

The  similarity  of  detail  at  this  point  in  the  two  descriptions 
leaves  no  doubt  that  the  author  of  Deatli  and  Life  is  following  the 
account  of  De  Planctu.  In  both  poems  the  fish  express  their  joy; 
in  both  the  trees  bend  their  branches  in  honor  of  the  goddess' 
approach. 

These  lowered  their  leaves  and  with  a  sort  of  bowed  veneration,  as  if 
they  were  bending  their  knees,  offered  her  their  prayers. 

[De  Planctu,  Prose  n.] 

The  boughes  eche  one 
they  lowted  to  that  Ladye  &  layd  forth  their  branches. 

[Death  and  Life,  69-70.] 

Even  more  conclusive  is  the  following.  The  garment  of  Nature 
is  allegorically  described  by  Alanus  after  the  model  of  Boethius, 
whose  De  Consolatione  Philosophic  he  is  following  throughout. 
It  is  ever  changing,  elusive  to  the  eye,  and  of  a  supernatural 
substance.  Similarly  the  author  of  Death  and  Life,  quite  unin- 
telligibly, except  on  the  hypothesis  that  he  is  echoing  Alanus, 
invests  his  goddess  in  a  mysterious  mantle. 

In  kirtle  &  mantle 
of  goodlyest  greene  that  ever  groome  wore 
ffor  the  kind  of  that  cloth  can  noe  clarke  tell. 

Indeed,  the  whole  passage  describing  the  approach  of  Liffe 
(Death  and  Life,  57-141)  is  but  an  elaboration  of  suggestions  in 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  251 

De  Planctu  Natures.  In  the  subsequent  narrative  of  the  poet'vS 
meeting  with  Lady  Liffe  there  is  also  a  general  similarity  with 
Alanus'  work,  but  these  elements  are  more  conneetional. 

In  view  of  the  substantial  identity  of  Lady  Liffe  and  Alanus' 
Natura  it  becomes  unnecessary  to  resort,  as  Skeat  does,  to  vaguer 
parallels  with  the  descriptions  in  Pi&rs  Plowman  of  Lady  Meed 
and  Holichurche.  The  atmosphere  which  surrounds  these  figures 
is  quite  different  from  that  which  surrounds  Lady  Liffe.  The 
latter  is  obviously  close  akin  to  the  Venus  of  mediaeval  love 
allegory;  her  host  is  a  kind  of  Court  of  Love,  recruited  from 
among  the  well-known  names  of  romantic  story,  and,  in  the 
case  of  the  abstractions,  from  the  traditions  of  the  Romance  of 
the  Rose.  The  materials  of  this  part  of  the  debate  reveal  in  the 
poet  a  source  of  inspiration  very  different  from  the  sombre  earnest- 
ness of  Piers  Plowman. 

C.  Winnere  and  Wastoure  and  The  Parlement  of  the  Thre  Ages. 
A  survey  of  the  romantic  poetry  of  the  alliterative  revival  affords 
abundant  evidence  of  the  Death  and  Life  author's  wider  range.  The 
recurrence  in  the  poem  of  phrases  not  found  in  Piers  Plowman  but 
common  in  other  poems  of  the  alliterative  school  shows  the  poet  to 
have  been  well  versed  in  the  alliterative  tradition.  In  style  and 
meter  Death  and  Liffe  is  really  much  closer  to  such  works  as  the 
Morte  Arthure  than  it  is  to  Piers  Plowman.  To  two  poems.  The 
Parlement  of  the  Thre  Ages  and  Winnere  and  Wastoure,''  which  are 
among  the  earliest  products  of  the  alliterative  revival,  the  relation 
of  Death  and  Liffe  is  particularly  close.  All  three  poems  conform 
to  the  type  of  the  fully  developed  allegorical  debate,  having  the 
vision  setting  and  the  elaborately  developed  narrative  and  descrip- 
tive machinery.  The  opening  visions  have  several  common 
features  which  are  wanting  in  Piers  Plowman,  and  there  are  some 

'  Edited  by  Gollancz,  The  Parlement  of  the  Thre  Ages,  Roxburghe  Club 
Publications,  1897;  The  Parlement  is  reprinted  by  Gollancz  in  Select  Early 
English  Poems.  The  three  alliterative  debates  are  described  together  by 
Professor  W.  H.  Schofield  as  illustrating  certain  conventional  features  of 
^he  mediaeval  vision  in  his  article  "  The  Nature  and  Fabric  ot  the  Pearl," 
P.  M.  L.  A.,  XIX,  195  ff.  Miss  Scamman,  op.  cit.,  points  out  the  structural 
similarity  of  Death  and  Liffe  and  Wirmere,  giving  numerous  parallels  in 
alliterative  phraseology  in  these  poems  and  in  The  Parlement  of  the  Thre 
Ages. 


252  Death  and  Liffe:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

striking  resomblanees  of  detail.**  In  all  three  the  land  of  streams 
and  birds  aud  flowers  in  which  the  poet  is  wandering  is  richly 
described.  Despite  their  apparent  unlikeness  the  principal  figures 
in  the  three  debates  have,  moreover,  an  essential  kinship.  Thus 
Middle  Elde  and  Youth,  the  former  expressly  pictured  as  a 
money-getter,  the  latter  a  spender,  are  Winnere  and  Wastoure; 
and  Winnere  and  Wastoure,  in  turn,  suggest  in  their  qualities 
and  relation  to  each  other  Death  and  Liffe.  Liife  complains  that 
Death  destroys  all  that  she  labors  to  produce,  as  Winnere  reproaches 
Wastoure  with  wasting  through  pride  what  he  himself  wins 
through  will.  Old  Age,  moreover,  in  The  Parlement  speaks  as 
Death's  messenger,  employing  many  of  the  conventional  motives 
repeated  in  Death  and  Life.  Winnere,  Wastoure,  and  Liffe  are 
accompanied  by  armies  of  typical  and  allegorical  figures.®  In 
both  Death  and  Life  and  Winnere  and  Wastoure  appeal  is  made 
before  the  debate  begins  to  a  higher  power  (the  King  in  Winnere, 
God  in  Death  and  Life) ;  and  in  both  a  messenger  is  sent  to  put 
a  stop,  in  one  case  to  the  conflict,  in  the  other  to  the  ravages  of 
Death.  Finally  the  authors  of  all  three  poems  show  a  consider- 
able predilection  for  romance.  The  worthies  listed  as  Death's 
conquests  in  The  Parlement  by  Old  Age  are  practically  recapitu- 
lated in  Death's  boast  in  Death  and  Life.  From  this  comparison 
it  will  appear  that  in  its  general  structure  Death  and  Life 
approximates  very  closely  to  Winnere  and  Wastoure,  while  in  its 
essential  theme  and  in  details  of  expression  it  is  rather  nearer 
to  The  Parlement.  TJie  resemblances  in  either  case  are  too 
striking  and  fundamental  to  be  the  result  of   accident.      Since 

*  See  notes. 

"  Winnere  addresses  Wastoure  in  terms  which  would  be  equally  applicable 
to  the  Death  and  Life  dispute: 

Bot  this  felle  false  thefe  J'at  byfore  30we  standes 
Thynkes  to  stryke  or  he  styntt  and  stioye  me  for  ever. 

(W.  and  W.,  228). 
Winnere  and  Death  express  hatred  of  their  opponents  in  similar  language: 

Sit  harde  sore  es  myn  and  harmes  me  more 

Ever  to  see  in  my  syghte  that  I  in  soul  hate.      ( W.  and  W.,  454 ) . 

Therefore,  liffe,  thou  me  leaue.    I  loue  thee  but  a  little; 

I  hate  thee  and  thy  houshold,  and  thy  hyndes  all! 

(D.  and  L.,  277). 


James  H.  Eanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  253 

Winnere  and  Wastoure  can  be  definitely  dated  not  mucli  later 
than  1350,  i.  e.,  before  the  earliest  version  of  Piers  Plowman,  and 
since  there  is  no  reason  to  contest  Gollancz'  opinion  that  Winnere 
and  The  Parlenient  are  by  the  same  author  we  must  conclude 
that  the  Death  and  Life  poet  was  acquainted  with  both  poems 
and  used  them  almost  as  extensively  as  he  did  Piers  Plowman. 
Presumably  he  knew  other  poems  of  the  alliterative  school  as  well. 
Something  of  a  case  could  be  made  out  for  the  Awntyrs  of 
Arthwre.     (See  notes  to  lines  151,  159,  165,  175,  196,  340). 

The  foregoing  analysis  of  the  various  motives  and  influences 
traceable  in  Death  and  Life  warrants  a  somewhat  more  specific 
account  of  the  genesis  and  literary  character  of  the  poem  than  has 
hitherto  been  given. 

The  author,  living  probably  in  the  fifteenth  century,  is  first  of 
all  an  inheritor  of  the  rich  tradition  of  the  earlier  alliterative  re- 
vival. His  acquaintance  with  this  literature  in  its  more  romantic 
and  imaginative  aspects  is  reflected  in  his  free  use  of  the  highly 
poetic  vocabulary  of  the  school,  which  enables  him  to  achieve  a 
style  more  vivid  and  colorful  than  that  of  Piers  Plowman  or  Scotish 
Feilde.  The  atmosphere  of  the  piece  bears  evidence  of  contact  with 
the  galaxy  of  poems  which  have  been  indiscriminately  ascribed  to 
Huchowne  of  the  Awle  Eyale.  In  reality,  however,  the  Death  and 
Life  author  stands  apart  from  the  writers  of  this  school ;  he  is  one 
of  the  after-born  and  has  never  been  admitted  to  the  deeper  mys- 
teries of  their  chivalric  order.  There  is  in  his  poem,  to  be  sure, 
the  fresh  breath  of  springtime  in  wood  and  field;  he  beholds  the 
same  visionary  landscape,  conventional  in  form  but  permeated 
with  a  real  sense  of  the  "beauty  and  bliss"  of  nature.  He  has, 
too,  their  somewhat  sober  sympathy  with  the  brighter  and  happier 
side  of  life— with  knights  and  lovely  ladies  in  the  trappings  of 
romance,  with  the  birds  that  sing  amid  the  boughs,  and  with  the 
fish  that  swim  gaily  in  the  element.  Yet  he  has,  on  the  other 
hand,  nothing  of  the  technique  of  chivalry — no  hunting  scene,  no 
feast  in  Arthur's  hall,  no  elaborate  description  of  armorial 
bearings  or  equipment.  In  all  this  his  poem  differs  markedly  not 
only  from  Gawain  and  the  Green  Knight,  but  also  from  The 
Parlement  and  Winnere.  Its  catalogue  of  romance  heroes  shows 
no  such  intimate  feeling  for  the  stories  as  is  apparent  in  the 

3 


254  Death  and  Liffe:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

corresponding  passage  in  llie  Parleinent.  Our  poet  sees  romance, 
as  it  were,  from  a  distance  and  without  participating,  like  the 
Gawain  poet,  in  its  inner  life.  His  temperament  and  the  spirit 
of  his  time  inclined  him  rather  to  allegory,  in  that  form  which 
combines  didacticism  with  romance — The  Court  of  Love  and  the 
Komance  of  the  Eose.  He  is  possessed  also  of  the  deeper  moral 
and  religious  consciousness  of  his  age,  sees  Death  as  the  inevitable 
counterpart  of  romance  and  joy,  and  salvation  joining  issue  with 
and  triumphant  over  Death.  It  was  natural,  therefore,  that  he 
should  have  been  attracted,  among  the  alliterative  poems,  particu- 
larly by  Winnere  and  Wastoure,  with  its  stately  and  picturesque 
didactic  allegory,  and  by  The  Parlement  of  the  Thre  Ages,  in 
which  a  sermon  on  death  and  dissolution  is  made  a  means  for 
the  introduction,  with  obvious  sympathy  on  the  part  of  the  author, 
of  the  richly  varied  matter  of  mediseval  romance.  Designing  to 
compose  an  allegorical  work  after  the  model  of  these  poems  the 
author  of  Death  and  Liffe  found  new  but  kindred  materials  in  Piers 
Plowman  in  the  war  of  Death  on  mankind  and  in  the  spiritual  tri- 
umph over  Death  of  Eternal  Life  in  Christ.  The  account  in  Piers 
Plowman  of  the  ravages  of  physical  death  fell  in  with  the  sermon  of 
Elde  in  The  Parlement  and  with  the  general  current  of  the  moral- 
izing literature  of  the  fifteenth  century.  But  the  personification  in 
Piers  Plowman  lacked  vividness,  and  in  elaborating  the  picture 
the  poet  turned  to  the  earlier  images  of  Death  in  mediseval  litera- 
ture, particularly,  it  may  be,  to  the  description  of  the  ugly  ghost 
in  the  Awntyrs  of  Arthure.  The  opposing  concept  of  Life  as  a 
type  of  corrupt  and  sinful  man  and  the  correlative  sense  of  Death 
as  God's  instrument  of  punishment  were  out  of  accord  with  the 
poet's  partisan  sympathies.  He  found,  however,  in  the  winsome 
Lady  Anima  the  hint  for  a  more  fitting  allegorical  counterpart  of 
the  grisly  horror,  and  the  passage  in  which  she  is  associated  with 
Kind  suggested  a  new  opportunity  for  poetic  elaboration,  the 
materials  for  which  were  ready  at  hand  in  Alanus.  Life,  as  the 
hypostasis  of  Dame  Nature,  thus  becomes  the  heroine,  and  with 
her  is  associated  the  idea  of  Venus  and  her  gentle  troupe  of 
followers  from  the  realms  of  love  allegory  and  romantic  fiction. 
Death  henceforth  is  a  hateful  intruder  and  her  theological  defeat 
a  fitting  punishment.  The  result  is  a  poem  of  peculiar  charm,  an 
unquestionable  work  of  art,  sufficiently  distinct  in  spirit  and  effect 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  255 

from  the  work  of  the  great  romantic  writers  of  the  Gawain  group 
and  from  that  of  the  serious  moralists  and  social  reformers  who 
followed  in  the  wake  of  "  Langland."  The  author's  name,  if  we 
could  know  it,  would  perhaps  stand  first,  in  actual  poetic  merit, 
among  the  English  writers  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  it  would 
be  not  the  least  memorable  in  the  great  but  shadowy  list  of  those 
poets  who  found  in  the  ancient  Teutonic  verse  form  a  more 
powerful  instrument  for  poetic  expression  than  they  could 
possibly  have  found  in  the  glib  octosyllabics  of  French  romance 
or  the  broken  down  heroic  couplet  of  the  fifteenth  century  disciples 
of  Chaucer. 

VII.     Metre 

Death  and  Life  is  written  in  that  modified  alliterative  verse 
which  appeared  in  Middle  English  during  the  second  quarter  of 
the  fourteenth  century  and  which  continued  for  about  two 
hundred  years.  The  lengthening  of  short  vowels  in  accented 
syllables  and  the  loss  of  final  -e  caused  this  verse  to  differ  in  many 
respects  from  Old  English  poetry.^ 

The  line  is  divided  by  a  sense-pause  into  two  halves,  each  of 
which  contains  at  least  two  accented  syllables.^  These  half  lines 
are  bound  together,  in  most  cases,  by  alliteration.  According  to 
the  number  and  the  position  of  the  alliterative  words,  the  lines 
may  be  classified  according  to  the  following  types: 

I.  Two  alliterative  words  in  the  first  half  line  with  one  in  the 
second :  aa/ax  or  aa/xa.  This  is  the  normal  line  in  Death 
and  Life;  ^  three  hundred  and  forty-three  out  of  the  459  lines 
in  the  poem  are  of  this  type.     For  examples,  see  11.  4,  6,  7,  8,  9,  etc. 

^  For  a  full  discussion  of  the  Middle  English  alliterative  poetry,  see  J. 
Schipper,  A  History  of  English  Versification,  Oxford,  1910,  Chapter  rv; 
Saintshury,  History  of  English  Prosody,  London,  1906,  i,  100  fT.;  K.  Luick, 
"  Die  Englische  Stabreimzeile  im  xiv,  xv,  und  xvi  Jahrhundert,"  Anglia, 
XI,  393-443  and  553-618;  and  K.  Schumacher,  "Studien  fiber  den  Stabreim 
in  der  mitteleng.  Alliterationsdichtung,"  Bonner  Studien,  xi   (1914). 

'  Since  the  sense-,pause  generally  coincides  with  the  end  of  the  line,  there 
are  fewer  run-on  lines  than  in  Old  English  poetry. 

•  I  have  examined  Scottish  Feilde,  The  Parlement  of  the  Thre  Ages,  and 
William  of  Paleme  (the  first  450  lines)  for  the  purpose  of  comparing 
the  metre  of  these  poems  with  that  of  D.  &  L.     8c.  F.  has  420  11.,  The  Parle- 


256  Death  and  Liffe:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

II.  Two  alliterative  words  in  each  half  line,*  a  a  /  a  a.  This 
type  is  a  slight  variant  of  I. 

III.  Three  alliterative  words  in  the  first  half  line  with  one  or 
two  in  the  second:  aaa/a  (a).  The  frequent  occurrence  of  this 
type  of  line — with  three  alliterative  words  in  the  first  half — 
convinces  me  that  the  triple  alliteration  was  consciously  sought 
after.=* 

IV.  One  alliterative  word  in  the  first  half  line  with  two  in  the 
second :  ®  a  x  /  a  a.     This  type  is  the  inverted  form  of  I. 

V.  One  alliterative  word  in  each  half  line :  '^  x  a  /  x  a  or 
xa/ax  or  ax/ax. 

VI.  Double  alliteration :  ^  a  a  /  b  b.  Skeat  (Percy  Folio  i, 
216,  note  to  ScotisJi  Feilde,  line  75)  regards  this  type  as  debased 
since  each  half  line  is  independent  in  its  alliteration.  Furnivall 
admits  the  presence  of  lines  of  this  type,  but  he  points  out  that 
in  some  cases,  as  in  11.  74-76  of  Scotisli  Feilde,  the  alliteration 
is  carried  over  from  line  to  line.  Thus  the  first  half  line  of  type 
a  a  /  b  b  may  form  a  triplet  with  the  two  halves  of  the  preceding 
line  and  the  second  a  triplet  with  the  two  halves  of  the  following 
line.  An  examination  of  the  lines  in  Death  and  Life  with  double 
alliteration  shows  that  Furnivall  was  right  in  admitting  this  as  a 
new  type  of  alliterative  line.  See  Death  and  Life,  130,  159,  209, 
for  variations  of  this  run-on  alliterative  line.  But  contrast  lines 
30,  184,  207,  262,  276,  354,  457.  In  Scotish  Feilde  there  are 
four  examples  of  run-on  alliteration :  75,  85,  368  and  392. 

VII.  Transverse  alliteration :  ®  a  b  /  a  b. 

VIII.  Introverted  alliteration :  ^°  a  b  /  b  a. 

met^t  665,  and  D.  d  L.  459.  For  tflie  first  type  of  line  the  results  are  as 
follows:  D.  d  L.,  343,  8c.  F.,  123,  Pari.  564,  and  Wm.,  397. 

*D.  &  L.,  1   (line  122) ;  He.  F.,  11,  Pcurl.,  6,  Wm.,  0. 

•D.  d  L.,  41   (1,  3,  10,  etc.),  8c.  F.  16,  Pari.  29.  Wm.  3. 

•Z).  d  L.,  7   (18,  173,  192,  211,  221,  258,  295),  Sc.  F.  6,  Pari.  3,  Wm.  2. 

'D.  d  L.,  16  (40,  69,  349,  372,  411,  447,  etc.),  8c.  F.  21,  Pari.  5,  Wm.  11. 

'D.  d  L.,  n  (30,  130,  159,  184,  207,  262,  276,  etc.),  8c.  F.  12,  Pari.  2, 
Wm.  4. 

•i).  d  L..  2  (95.  160),  8c.  F.  1,  Pari.  0,  Wm.  3.  In  D.  d  L.  there  are 
no  occurreoices  of  the  types  a  a  b  /  a  h  and  a  a  /  a  b  b,  which  occur  a  few 
times  in  8c.  F.  and  Pari. 

"Z).  d  L.,  1  (285),  8c.  F.  4,  Pari.  0,  Wm.  2.  There  are  no  examples  in 
D.  d  L.  of  a  b  b  /  a  or  of  a  a  b  /  b,  types  which  occur,  though  very  rarely, 
in  Pari  and  8c.  F. 


James  H.  Hanford  mid  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  257 

IX.  Vocalic  alliteration.  This  type  is  very  common  in  all  the 
poems  of  this  school.^^ 

X.  Alliteration  in  the  first  half  line  only :  ^-  a  a  /  x  or  a  a  a  /  x. 

XI.  Lines  without  alliteration.^^  It  is  impossible  to  tell 
whether  lines  without  alliteration  are  due  to  corruptions  of  the 
text  or  to  the  failure  of  the  author  to  compose  alliterative  lines. 
In  the  case  of  Death  and  lAffe  and  Scotish  Feilde  some  of  these 
lines  are  obviously  due  to  careless  copying.  Again  it  is  significant 
that  Parlement,  which  is  relatively  free  from  scribal  errors, 
contains  not  a  single  example  of  a  non-alliterative  line. 

The  presence  of  such  a  great  number  of  types  of  alliteration 
shows  that  the  "  rules"  were  followed  less  closely  in  this  poem, 
and  in  other  poems  of  this  school,  than  in  the  Old  English 
alliterative  verse.  The  author  was  apparently  satisfied  if  he 
succeeded  in  binding  his  half  lines  together  by  any  sort  of 
alliteration.  He  allows  himself  many  poetic  licenses  in  the 
manner  of  binding  the  half  lines  together. 

In  the  first  place,  the  alliteration  sometimes  falls  upon  an 
unstressed  word,  as  in  lines  194,  209,  245,  262,  314,  322.  Some- 
times the  attributive  adjective  takes  the  accent,  sometimes  the 
noun.  In  the  combination  of  verb  plus  prepositional  adverb  either 
the  verb  or  the  preposition  may  take  the  accent.  In  one  case, 
line  211,  both  are  accented. 

Again,  in  verbal  compounds  either  the  prefix  or  the  root  may 
bear  the  alliteration.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases  (16),  however, 
the  root  of  the  word  bears  the  alliteration.  The  prefix  bears  the 
alliteration  in  lines  128  and  406.^* 

^D.  d  L.,  11  (19,  57,  104,  185,  etc.),  8c.  F.  10,  Pari.  46,  Wm.  5.  Vocalic 
alliteration  becomes  rarer  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Schumacher,  p.  5, 
discusses  this  type  in  D.  d  L.     See  also  pp.  62  and  351. 

"Z).  d  L.,  15  (2,  38,  92,  121,  156,  168,  291,  etc.),  8c.  F.  28,  Pcurl.  6, 
Wm.  17.  A  slight  change  in  some  of  these  lines  would  make  them  conform 
to  the  normal  type.  In  the  case  of  some  of  the  proposed  emendations  of 
York  Powell,  Holthausen,  and  Brotanek,  the  change  seems  justified  by  a 
compaTison  with  other  lines.  But  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  changes 
are  so  radical  as  to  involve  a  rewriting  of  these  lines  to  make  them  conform 
to  the  normal  line.  The  presence  of  type  X,  however,  in  the  poems  of  this 
school  is  not  due,  I  think,  to  the  errors  of  the  copyists,  but  rather  to  the 
authors  themselves. 

"D.  d  L.,  6,  (150,  153,  171,  307,  417,  421),  8c.  F.  6,  Pari.  0,  Wm.  7. 

"Even  in  Edgelcmg  amd  everlasting,  the  alliteration  is  on  I,  and  in  line 


258  Death  and  Liffe:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

Moreover,  tlie  author  of  Death  and  Liffe  admits  many  allitera- 
tions upon  sounds  only  approximately  the  same,  such  as  w:  wr 

(269),   Jc:kn    (47,    51,    100,    118,   etc.),   and   j:g    (331),   s:sch 

(400),  sh: St  (370),  k:qu  357.^^ 

Finally,  the  number  of  unaccented  syllables  in  the  arsis  or  in 
anacrusis  varies  considerably.  A  comparison  of  Death  and  Liffe 
with  The  Destruction  of  Troy  shows  that  the  regularity  of  the 
metre  in  the  latter  is  not  to  be  found  in  our  poem.^®  It  is  prob- 
able, therefore,  that  the  author  of  Death  and  Liffe  was  imitating 
a  form  of  verse  which  he  understood  only  imperfectly.  In  view  of 
these  facts,  therefore,  it  is  extremely  hazardous  to  attempt  to 
emend  the  unusual  or  imperfect  lines  in  order  to  make  them 
conform  to  the  more  rigid  requirements  of  Old  English  alliterative 
verse  or  even  to  the  requirements  of  the  early  Middle  English 
alliterative  poems.  The  attempts  of  York  Powell,  Holthausen, 
and  Brotanek  to  normalize  the  imperfectly  alliterating  lines  in 
Death  and  Liffe  involve  such  radical  changes  in  the  poem  as  to 
constitute  a  rewriting  of  most  of  the  difficult  passages.^''  Such 
changes  are  based  on  the  assumption  that  the  author's  copy  of  the 
poem  was  entirely  regular  in  metre.     But  such  an  assumption, 

152  the  alliteration  is  {v)glyest — ghosts — gone.  This  false  division  of  a 
word  is  seen  also  in  (E)m,enyduse,  Pari.  342,  359,  {Ec) clesiastes — clerke — 
(de) dares,  638.  There  is  no  difference  between  D.  d  L.  and  the  other 
poems  of  this  school  in  respect  to  the  alliteration  of  compound  words. 

"  Such  combinations  were  evidently  perfectly  permissible,  however, 
according  to  the  "  rules  "  of  this  school.  In  Pari.,  which,  like  D.  d  L., 
is  comparatively  strict  in  this  respect,  I  find  only  k  :  Icn,  s  :  sh,  and  w  :  wh. 
8c.  F.  and  Wm.  are  more  lax.  In  8c.  F.  I  find  w  :  v,  sk  :  k,  sk  :  k  :  Jen, 
g  •  j,  9  •  k,  and  sq  :  sw  :  sn;  in  Wm.  k  :  ch,  k  :  Im,  w  :  v,  w  :  wh,  8  :  »h. 
See  also  Schumacher,  pp.  44,  54,  and  62. 

"  I  find  it  impossible  to  make  the  lines  of  D.  &  L.  conform  to  the  types 
given  by  Luick,  Anglia  xi,  404,  as  characteristic  of  The  Destruction  of  Troy. 
For  example,  breathed  ffull  sweete,  23,  may  be  scanned  /xx/  (Aj)  or 
/xx/x  (A)  according  to  the  pronunciation  of  the  final  -e;  and  with  their 
bright  Leaues,  25,  as  xx//  (C,)  or  as  xx//x  (B),  Since  there  is  no 
apparent  regularity  in  the  number  of  unaccented  syllables  in  the  arsis, 
the  metrical  evidence  does  not  help  us  to  determine  whether  final  -e  was 
pronounced  in  this  poem. 

"York  Powell,  "Notes  on  Death  and  Life,"  Eng.  Stud.,  vii,  97  ff.;  Holt- 
hausen, "  Zu  Death  and  Life,"  Anglia  Beiblatt,  xxiii,  157  ff.;  Brotanek, 
review  of  Arber's  Dunbar  Anthology,  Anglia  Beiblatt,  xin,  176-7. 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  259 

I  think,  is  entirely  unwarranted.  TJie  divergencies  from  the 
older  alliterative  types  are  so  numerous  and  so  varied  that  we 
must  assume  that  almost  any  sort  of  alliteration  was  allowed, 
provided  only  that  there  was  some  semblance  of  alliteration.  For 
a  discussion  of  some  ^^  of  these  proposed  emendations  see  notes 
to  lines  19,  28,  30,  46,  95,  130,  153,  156,  221,  239,  285,  311,  321 
and  352. 

Because  of  a  similarity  in  metrical  structure,  Percy  believed 
that  Death  and  Life  and  Scotish  Feilde  were  by  the  same  author.^® 
Skeat  advances  as  one  of  his  arguments  for  common  authorship  the 
"  remarkable  similarity  in  the  style,  diction,  and  rhythm  of  the  two 
poems.^° 

The  comparison  that  has  been  made  between  these  two  poems 
shows  that  they  are  similar  in  metre,  but  that  they  are  by  no 
means  remarkably  similar.  There  is,  of  course,  a  close  similarity 
between  all  the  poems  of  this  school,  but  this  similarity  is  best 
explained  by  imitation  and  by  common  traditions,  and  not  by 
identity  of  authorship.  Luick's  discussion  ^^  of  the  relation 
between  Death  and  Life  and  Scotish  Feilde  is  well  worth  sum- 
marizing. 

1.  In  Death  and  Life  there  are  fewer  cases  of  sonorous  final 
syllables  than  in  Scotish  Feilde  (49%:  66%). 

2.  Short  half  lines  are  more  numerous  in  Death  and  Life  (19, 
46,  158,  237,  244,  etc.). 

3.  "  Very  striking  for  the  sixteenth  century,  in  my  opinion,  is 
the  infinitive  ending  -en  in  line  392:  to  Icithen  his  strenghi. 
Although  this  form  is  not  certainly  confirmed  by  the  metre  as 
the  author's  form,  it  is  nevertheless  protected." 

4.  The  alliteration  ryde:r eschew,  wrought  (215)  at  first  sight 
would  point  to  a  late  date  of  composition.  But  since  wr  elsewhere 
always   alliterates  only   with   w    (15,   221,   233,   269,  296),  this 

^  I  have  not  attempted  to  discuss  all  of  these  proposed  emendations,  but 
have  limited  myself  to  one  or  two  of  each  type.  Each  emendation  dis- 
cussed represents  a  whole  group  of  proposed  emendations. 

"  "  It  is  in  the  same  measure  as  the  Ballad  of  Liffe  &  Death,  which  from 
a  similitude  of  style,  seems  to  have  been  written  by  the  same  author." 
(Cited  in  the  Hales-Furnivall  edition  of  the  Percy  Folio  MS.,  i,  199,  fn.) 

^  Percy  Folio  MS.,  ed.  Hales-Furnivall,  m,  49. 


'^Anglia,  xi,  608-613. 


Giioo 


260  Death  and  Liffe:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

single  instance  of  the  r:ivr  alliteration  may  be  explained  as  the 
mistake  of  the  copyist  or  as  a  forced  rhyme.  In  Scotish  Feilde, 
however,  in  spite  of  the  equal  length  of  the  two  poems,  wr  only 
once  alliterates  with  w  {ivemde:  will:  wrought,  70),  the  usual 
allitteration  being  wr:r.--  Since  w  is  not  pronounced  in  Scotish 
Feilde  this  poem  must  be  later  than  Death  and  Liffe. 

5.  "I  think,  therefore,  that  the  two  poems  are  not  by  the  same 
author,  but  that  Death  and  Liffe  is  older  than  Scotish  Feilde  and 
belongs  to  a  fifteenth  century  follower  of  Langley.  Perhaps  it 
even  belongs  to  a  time  when  -e  still  had  its  value  in  the  poetic 
language."  -^ 

6.  Death  and  Liffe  was  well  known  to  the  author  of  Scotish 
Feilde. 

7.  Both  poems  are  greatly  influenced  by  the  traditions  of  the 
older  poetry  of  the  fourteenth  century  (especially  by  The 
Destruction  of  Troy).  This  influence  of  the  older  alliterative 
poetry  is  seen  in  the  vocabulary,  in  the  alliterative  formulas,  and 
in  the  archaic  style.  Many  alliterative  combinations  and  many 
traditions  proper  only  to  the  fourteenth  century  appear  in 
Death  and  Liffe  and  Scotish  Feilde  and  are  to  be  explained  by  the 
author's  imitation  of  the  older  alliterative  poetry. 


°  Luick  explains  this  one  exception  by  the  fact  that  the  wr  :  w  combinar 
tion  is  due  to  a  later  metathesis  of  worked,  the  author's  original. 

**  Luick  gives  no  evidence  to  support  this  important  statement.  See  note 
to  page  227. 


DEATH  &  LIFFE 

2  fitts 

[I] 

Christ,  Christen  King,  that  on  the  crosse  tholed, 
hadd  paines  &  passyons  to  deffend  our  soules, 
giue  vs  grace  on  the  ground  the  greatlye  to  serve 
for  that  royall  red  blood  that  rann  ffrom  thy  side; 
&  take  away  of  thy  winne  word  as  the  world  asketh,  5 

that  is  richer  of  renowne,  rents  or  others. 
For  boldnesse  of  body  nor  blytheness  of  hart, 
coninge  of  clearkes  ne  cost  vpon  earth, 
but  all  wasteth  away  &  worthes  to  nought, 

when  Death  driueth  att  the  doore  with  his  darts  keene.         10 
Then  noe  truse  can  be  taken,  noe  treasure  on  earth ; 
but  all  lordshipps  be  lost  &  the  liffe  both. 
If  thou  haue  pleased  the  Prince  that  paradice  weldeth 
there  is  noe  bearne  borne  that  may  thy  blisse  recon. 
But  if  thou  haue  wrongffully  wrought  &  will  not  amend,         15 
thou  shalt  byterlye  bye  or  else  the  booke  ffayleth. 
Therfore  begin  in  God  to  greaten  our  workes, 
&  in  his  fFaythffull  Sonne  that  ffreelye  him  ffolloweth, 
in  hope  of  the  Holy  Ghost  that  yeeld  shall  neuer. 
God  that  is  gracyous  &  gouerne[th]  vs  all  20 

bringe  vs  into  blisse,  that  brought  vs  out  of  ball. 

Thus  ffared  I  through  a  ffryth  were  fflowers  were  manye. 

In  the  textual  notes  P.  stands  for  Percy,  Sk.  for  Skeat,  F.  for  Furnivall, 
Po.  for  Powell,  Br.  for  Brotanek,  and  Holt,  for  Holthausen.  Modern  usance 
is  followed  in  punctuation  and  capitalization. 

1.  The  lines  of  Death  <md  Liffe  are  written  short  up  to  line  87  of  the 
text.  From  that  point  on  the  lines  are  written  long,  with  no  pause-naarke 
in  the  ms. 

10.  MS.  doeref — F. 

20.  MS.  goueme. 

261 


262  Death  and  Life:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

bright  bowes  in  the  banke  breathed  ffuU  sweete, 

the  red  rayling  roses,  the  riches  of  fflowers, 

land  broad  on  their  bankes  wtth  their  bright  leaues,  25 

&  a  riuer  that  was  rich  runn  oner  the  greene 

w/th  still  stnrring  streames  that  streamed  ffull  bright. 

Over  the  glittering  ground  as  I  there  glode, 

methonght  itt  lenghtened  my  liffe  to  looke  on  the  bankes. 

Then  among  the  fajre  flowers  I  settled  me  to  sitt  30 

vnder  a  huge  hawthorne  that  hore  was  of  blossomes ; 

I  bent  my  backe  to  the  bole  &  blenched  to  the  streames. 

Thus  prest  I  on  apace  vnder  the  greene  hawthorne. 

ffor  breme  of  the  birds  &  breath  of  the  fflowers, 

&  what  for  waching  &  wakinge  &  wandering  about  35 

in  my  seate  where  I  sate  I  sayed  a  sleepe ; 

lying  edgelong  on  the  ground,  list  all  my  seluen, 

deepe  dreames  and  dright  droue  mee  to  hart. 

Methought  walking  that  I  was  in  a  wood  stronge, 
vpon  a  great  mountaine  where  mores  were  large,  40 

that  I  might  see  on  euerye  side  17  miles, 
both  of  woods  &  wasts  &  walled  townes, 
comelye  castles  &  cleare  with  caruen  towers, 
parkes  &  pallaces  &  pastures  ffull  many, 

all  the  world  full  of  welth  vunlye  to  behold.  45 

I  sett  me  downe  softlye  and  sayd  these  words : 
"  I  will  not  kere  out  of  kythe  before  I  know  more." 
&  I  wayted  me  about  wonders  to  know 
&  [a]  ffayrlye  beffell  soe  fayre  me  bethought: 
I  saw  on  the  south  syde  a  seemelye  sight  50 

24.  Riches  for  richest — P.  and  Po.     But  Cf.  comlyes,  202,  and  es  for  est 
in  the  second  person  singular  indicative  of  the  verb. 

25.  Land.     See  Glossary. 

37.  List  for  lift,  left  alone?    Sk.     See  note. 

45.  Vunlye,  forte  winlye,  i.  e.,  pleasantly,  jucunde.   Lye — P.  viewlyef — F. 
The  MS.  reading  is  certainly  not  winlye;  vre  read  vunlye.     See  Glossary. 

49.  MS.  /  =  itf—V.     York  Powell  suggests  that  /  should  be  a. 

50.  F  reads  saw.     Saw  and  saye  are  the  two  forms  of  the  preterit  of  see. 
Cf.  lines  151,  211. 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  363 

of  comelye  knights  full  keene  &  knights  ffull  noble, 

princes  in  the  presse  proudlye  attyred, 

dukes  that  were  doughtye  &  many  deere  erles, 

sweeres  &  swaynes,  that  swarmed  ffull  thicke. 

There  was  neither  hill  nor  holte  nor  haunt  there  beside  55 

but  itt  was  planted  ffull  of  people,  the  plaine  and  the  roughe. 

There  ouer  that  oste  estward  I  looked 

into  a  boolish  banke,  the  brightest  of  other, 

that  shimered  and  shone  as  the  sheere  heauen 

throughe  the  light  of  a  Ladye  that  longed  therin.  60 

Shee  came  cheereing  ffull  comlye  with  companye  noble, 

vpon  cleare  clothes,  were  all  of  cleare  gold, 

layd  brode  vpon  the  bent  with  brawders  ffull  riche, 

before  that  ffayre  on  the  ffeeld  where  shee  fforth  passed. 

Shee  was  brighter  of  her  blee  then  was  the  bright  sonn,  65 

her  rudd  redder  then  the  rose  that  on  the  rise  hangeth, 

meekely  smiling  with  her  mouth  &  merry  in  her  lookes, 

euer  laughing  for  loue  as  she  like  wold; 

&  as  shee  came  by  the  bankes  the  boughes  eche  one 

they  lowted  to  that  Ladye  &  layd  forth  their  branches.         70 

Blossomes  &  burgens  breathed  ffull  sweete, 

fflowers  flourished  in  the  frith  where  she  fforth  stepedd, 

&  the  grasse  that  was  gray  greened  beliue. 

Breme  birds  on  the  boughes  busilye  did  singe 

&  all  the  wild  in  the  wood  winlye  the  ioyed.  75 

Kin^rs  kneeled  on  their  knees  knowing  that  Ladye, 

&  all  the  princes  in  the  presse  &  the  proud  dukes, 

barrens  &  bachelours  all  they  bowed  ffull  lowe ; 

all  profrereth  her  to  please,  the  pore  and  the  riche. 

Shee  welcometh  them  ffull  winlye  with  wordes  ffull  hend,       80 

both  bames  &  birds,  beastes  &  fowles. 

Then  that  lowly  Ladye,  on  land  where  schee  standeth, 
that  was  comelye  cladd  in  kirtle  &  mantle 

61.  Companye.     Only  half  of  the  n  in  the  MS. 

82.  Lowly  =  louely — P.  and  Po.     But  v  and  w  are  confused  in  this  poem. 
Cf.  vimlye,  45,  and  see  note. 


264  Death  and  Life:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

of  goodlyest  greene  that  euer  groome  ware, 

for  the  kind  of  that  cloth  can  noe  clarke  tell;  85 

&  shee  the  most  gracyous  groome  that  on  the  ground  longed ; 

of  her  druryes  to  deeme  to  dull  be  my  witts, 

&  the  price  of  her  [perrie]  can  no  p[erson]  tell, 

&  the  colour  of  her  kirtle  was  caruen  ffull  lowe, 

that  her  blisfull  breastes  bearnes  might  behold,  90 

wtth  a  naked  necke  that  neighed  her  till, 

that  gaue  light  on  the  land  as  beames  of  the  sunn. 

All  the  'kings  christened  with  their  cleere  gold 

might  not  buy  that  ilke  broche  that  buckeled  her  mantle, 

&  the  crowne  on  her  head  was  caruen  in  heauen,  95 

wtth  a  scepter  sett  in  her  hand  of  selcoth  gemmes. 

Thus  louelye  to  looke  vpon  on  land  shee  abydeth. 

Merry  were  the  meanye  of  men  that  shee  had, 

blyth  bearnes  of  blee  bright  as  the  sunn: 

S?'r  Comfort  that  'knight  when  the  court  dineth,  100 

Sir  Hope  &  Str  Hind,  yee  sturdye  beene  both, 

Str  Liife  &  Sir  Likinge  &  Str  Lone  alsoe, 

Str  Cunninge  &  Sir  Curtesye  that  curteous  were  of  deeds, 

&  Sir  Honor  ouer  all  vnder  her  seluen, 

a  stout  man  &  a  staleworth,  her  steward  I-wisse.  105 

She  had  ladyes  of  loue  longed  her  about : 

Dame  Mirth  &  Dame  Meekenes  &  Dame  Mercy  the  hynd, 

Dallyance  &  Disport,  2  damsells  ffull  sweete, 

with  all  beawtye  [&]  blisse  bearnes  to  behold. 

There  was  minstrelsye  made  in  full  many  a  wise,  110 

88.  Some  word,  probably  a  word  beginning  with  p,  has  obviously  been 
omitted  by  the  copyist.  "  It  is  surely  the  word  perrie,  precious  stones, 
never  missed  in  describing  ladies." — ^Sk.  This  reading  is  very  probable. 
See  note. 

P  =  Person — P.  The  word  is  just  as  likely  to  be  Prince,  a  word  fre- 
quently used  in  this  poem. 

90.  Might.  The  m  has  a  short  extra  stroke  at  the  beginning  which 
makes  it  resemble  an  imperfect  wn. 

103.  Cimninge,  one  stroke  too  few  in  the  MS. — F.  The  last  n  lacks  a 
stroke  or  this  stroke  coincides  with  the  first  stroke  of  the  g. 

109.  d  has  certainly  been  omitted  after  beawtye.     Cf.  1.  242. 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  265 

who-soe  had  craft  or  cuninge  kindlye  to  showe, 

both  of  birds  &  beastes  &  bearnes  in  the  leaues; 

&  fSshes  of  the  fflood  ffaine  of  her  were; 

birds  made  merrye  with  their  mouth,  as  they  in  mind  cold. 

Tho  I  was  moued  with  that  mirth  that  marnell  mee  thought;  115 

what  woman  that  was  that  all  the  world  lowted, 

I  thought  speedylye  to  spye,  speede  if  I  might. 

Then  I  kered  to  a  knight,  S?"r  Comfort  the  good, 
kneeling  low  on  my  knees  curteouslye  him  praysed. 
I  willed  him  of  his  worshipp  to  witt  me  the  sooth  120 

of  yonder  Tiadye  of  loue  &  of  her  royall  meanye, 
Hee  cherished  me  cheerlye  by  cheeke  &  by  chin, 
&  sayd,  "  Certes,  my  sonne,  the  sooth  thou  shalt  knowe. 
This  is  my  Lady  Dame  Liffe  that  leadeth  vs  all ; 
shee  is  worthy  &  wise,  the  welder  of  ioye,  125 

greatlye  gouerneth  the  ground  &  the  greene  grasse. 
Shee  hath  ffostered  &  ffed  thee  sith  thou  was  ffirst  borne, 
&  yett  beffore  thou  wast  borne  shee  bred  in  thy  hart. 
Thou  art  welcome,  I-wisse,  vuto  my  winn  Ladye. 
If  thou  wilt  wonders  witt  feare  not  to  ffraine  130 

&  I  shall  kindlye  thee  ken,  care  thou  noe  more." 
Then  I  was  fearfull  enoughe  &  ffaythffullye  thought 
that  I  shold  long  with  Dame  Liffe  &  loue  her  for  eUer ; 
there  shall  no  man  vpon  mold  my  mind  from  her  take 
for  all  the  glitteringe  gold  vnder  the  god  of  heauen.  135 

Thus  in  liking  this  liuinge  (the  longer  the  more) 
till  that  it  neighed  neere  noone  &  one  hower  after 
there  was  rydinge  &  revell  that  ronge  in  the  bankes ; 
all  the  world  was  full  woe  winne  to  behold. 
Or  itt  turned  from  12  till  2  of  the  clocke  140 

much  of  this  melodye  was  maymed  &  marde. 
In  a  nooke  of  the  north  there  was  a  noyse  hard 
as  itt  had  beene  a  home,  the  highest  of  others, 
with  the  biggest  here  that  euer  bearne  wist, 

117-119.  These  lines  are  incorrectly  written  as  four  lines  in  the  MS. 
136.  F.  emends  Longer  to  Longed.     But  see  Glossary  and  note. 


266  Death  and  Life:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

&  the  burly  est  blast  that  euer  blowne  was  145 

throughe  the  rattlinge  rout  runge  ouer  the  ffeelds ; 

the  gi-ound  gogled  for  greeffe  of  that  grim  dame. 

I  went  nere  out  of  my  witt  for  wayliug  care. 

Yett  I  bode  on  the  bent  &  boldlye  looked ; 

once  againe  into  the  north  mine  eye  then  I  cast.  150 

I  there  saye  a  sight  was  sorrowfull  to  behold, 

one  of  the  vglyest  ghosts  that  on  the  earth  gone. 

There  was  no  man  of  this  sight  but  hee  was  affrayd, 

soe  grislye  &  great  &  grim  to  behold. 

&  a  quintfull  queene  came  quakinge  before,  155 

with  a  earned  crowne  on  her  head,  all  of  pure  gold, 

&  shee  the  ffoulest  ffreake  that  formed  was  euer, 

both  of  hide  &  hew  &  heare  alsoe. 

Shee  was  naked  as  my  nayle  both  aboue  &  belowe ; 

shee  was  lapped  about  in  linenn  breeches ;  160 

a  more  fearffull  face  no  freake  might  behold, 

for  shee  was  long  &  leane  &  lodlye  to  see. 

There  was  noe  man  on  the  mold  soe  mightye  of  strenght 

but  a  looke  of  that  Lady  &  his  liffe  passed. 

Her  eyes  f arden  as  the  fyer  that  in  the  furnace  bumes ;  165 

they  were  hollow  in  her  head  with  full  heauye  browes; 

her  cheekes  were  leane,  wzth  lipps  full  side, 

wt'th  a  maruelous  mouth  full  of  long  tushes, 

&  the  nebb  of  her  nose  to  her  navell  hanged, 

&  her  lere  like  the  lead  that  latelye  was  beaten.  170 

Shee  bare  in  her  right  hand  &  vnrid  weapon, 

a  bright  burnisht  blade  all  bloody  beronen, 

&  in  the  left  hand,  like  the  legg  of  a  grype, 

wtth  the  talents  that  were  touchinge  &  teenfull  enoughe. 

With,  that  shee  burnisht  vp  her  brand  &  bradd  out  her  geere ;  1Y5 

151.  Saye.  F.  reads  souw,  but  the  MS.  certainly  has  saye.  See  line  50 
and  textual  note. 

165.  Her.  MS.  his  is  probably  due  to  attraction  from  the  preceding  line. 
The  pronoiine  in  this  poem  are  greatly  confused.  Cf.  lines  192,  322,  393, 
etc. 

171.  rf  for  an— P. 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  267 

&  I  for  f eare  of  that  f reake  ffell  in  a  swond. 

Had  not  Sir  Comfort  come  &  my  care  stinted, 

I  had  beene  slaine  with  that  sight  of  that  sorrowfull  Ladye. 

Then  he  lowted  to  me  low  &  learned  me  well ; 

sajd,  ''  Be  thou  not  abashed,  but  abyde  there  a  while;  180 

here  may  thou  sitt  &  see  selclothes  Hull  manye. 

Yonder  damsell  is  Death  that  dresseth  her  to  smyte. 

Loe,  Pryde  passeth  before  &  the  price  beareth, 

many  sorrowffuU  souldiers  following  her  fast  after: 

both  Enuye  &  Anger,  in  their  yerne  weeds,  185 

Morninge  &  Mone,  Sir  Mis[c]heefe  his  ffere. 

Sorrow  &  Sicknesse  &  Sikinge  in  Hart; 

all  that  were  lothinge  of  their  liife  were  lent  to  her  court. 

When  she  draweth  vp  her  darts  &  dresseth  her  to  smite, 

there  is  no  groome  vnder  God  may  garr  her  to  stint.  190 

Then  I  blushed  to  that  bearne  &  balef ullye  looked ; 
[s]he  stepped  forth  barefooted  on  the  bents  browne, 
the  greene  grasse  in  her  gate  she  grindeth  all  to  powder, 
trees  tremble  for  ffeare  &  tipen  to  the  ground, 
leaues  lighten  downe  lowe  &  leauen  their  might,  195 

fowles  faylen  to  fflee  when  the  heard  wapen, 
&  the  ffishes  in  the  fflood  ffaylen  to  swimne 
fFor  dread  of  Dame  Death  that  dolefullye  threates. 
With  that  shee  hyeth  to  the  hill  &  the  heard  ffindeth ; 
in  the  roughest  of  the  rout  shee  reacheth  forth  darts.  200 

There  shee  fell  att  the  first  fflappe  1500 
of  comelyes  queenes  with  crowne  &  km^s  full  noble; 
proud  princes  in  the  presse  prestlye  shee  quellethe ; 

186.  MS.  Misheefe.     F.  prints  Mis[c]heefe. 

188.  Lent,  led? — P.  MS.  letit,  or  a  t  crossed  through  for  the  first  stroke 
of  an  n — F.  I  read  the  MS.  as  let — undotted  i — t,  or  better,  as  lent,  with  n 
written  over  a  t.     See  Glossary. 

192.  MS.  he  for  she — P.  Cf.  lines  165  and  393.  He,  of  course,  may  be 
feminine,  but  since  this  is  the  only  occurrence  of  the  form  in  the  poem, 
we  think  it  more  likely  that  the  copyist  has  miswritten  the  orijrinal  she. 
See  note. 

197.  MS.  Sicimne  is  possibly  a    miswritin?  for  swimme. 


268  Death  and  Life:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

of  dukes  that  were  doughtye  shoe  dang  out  the  braynes ; 

merry  maydens  on  the  mold  shee  mightilye  killethe ;  205 

there  might  no  weapon  them  warrant  nor  no  walled  towne ; 

younge  children  in  their  craddle  they  dolefullye  dyen; 

shee  spareth  ffor  no  specyaltye  but  spilleth  the  gainest ; 

the  more  woe  shee  worketh  more  mightye  shee  seemeth. 

When  my  Lady  Dame  Liffe  looked  on  her  deeds  210 

&  saw  how  dolefullye  shee  dunge  downe  her  people, 
shee  cast  vp  a  crye  to  the  hye  'King  of  heauen. 
&  he  hearkneth  itt  hendlye  in  his  hye  throne ; 
he  called  on  Countenance  &  bade  his  course  take, 
"  Ryde  thou  to  the  resohew  of  yonder  wrought  Ladye."         215 
Hee  was  bowne  att  his  bidd  &  bradd  on  his  way, 
that  wight  as  the  wind  that  wappeth  in  the  skye. 
He  ran  out  of  the  rainebow  through  the  ragged  clowds 
&  light  on  the  land  where  the  lords  [lay]  slaine, 
&  vnto  dolefull  Death  he  dresses  him  to  speake ;  220 

sayth,  "  Thou  wrathefull  Queene.fhat  euer  woe  worketh, 
cease  of  thy  sorrow  thy  soueraigine  comandeth, 
&  let  thy  burnished  blade  on  the  bent  rest, 
that  my  Lady  Dame  Liife  her  likinge  may  haue." 
Then  Death  glowed  &  gran  for  gryme  of  her  talke,  225 

but  shee  did  as  shee  dained,  durst  shee  noe  other ; 
shee  pight  the  poynt  of  her  sword  in  the  plaine  earth, 
&  with  a  looke  full  layeth  shee  looked  on  the  hills. 

Then  my  Ladye  Dame  Liffe  shee  looketh  full  gay, 
kyreth  to  Countenance  &  him  comelye  thankes,  230 

kissed  kindlye  that  knight,  then  carped  she  no  more; 
but  vnto  dolefull  Death  she  dresseth  her  to  speake ; 
sayth :  "  Thou  woefull  wretch,  weaknesse  of  care, 
bold  birth  full  of  bale,  bringer  of  sorrowe, 

dame  daughter  of  the  devill,  Death  is  thy  name:  235 

but  if  thy  fare  be  thy  fairer  the  feend  haue  thy  soule. 

218.  Rainehow.     The  w  is  made  over  a  i/  in  the  MS. — F. 

219.  Some  word,  probably  a  word  beginning  with  I,  has  been  omitted  by 
the  scribe.     We  adopt  F's  emendation. 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  269 

Couldest  thou  any  cause  ffind,  thou  kaitiffe  wretch, 

that  neither  reason  nor  wright  may  raigne  with  thy  name  ? 

Why  kills  thou  the  body  that  neuer  care  rought  ? 

The  grasse  nor  the  greene  trees  greened  the  neuer,  240 

but  come  fforth  in  their  kinds  Christyans  to  helpe,  .  ; 

with  all  beawtye  &  blisse  that  barne  might  devise. 

But  of  my  meanye  thou  marreth  marveild  I  haue 

how  thou  dare  doe  them  to  death,  eche  day  soe  manye 

&  the  handy  worke  of  him  that  heauen  weldeth.  245 

How  keepeth  thou  his  comandements,  thou  kaytifFe  retch ! 

Wheras  banely  hee  them  blessed  &  biddeth  them  thriue, 

waxe  fforth  in  the  wor[l]d  &  worth  vnto  manye, 

&  thou  lett  them  of  their  leake  with  thy  lidder  turnes. 

But  with  wondering  &  with  woe  thou  waiteth  them  full  yorne,  250 

&  as  a  theefe  in  a  rout  thou  throngeth  them  to  death, 

that  neither  Nature  nor  I  ff or  none  of  thy  deeds 

may  bring  vp  our  bearnes,  their  bale  thee  betyde. 

But  if  thou  blinn  of  that  bine  thou  buy  must  full  deere ; 

they  may  wary  the  weeke  that  euer  thou  wast  fformed."        255 

Then  Death  dolefullye  drew  vp  her  browes, 
armed  her  to  answer  &  vpright  shee  standeth, 
&  sayd :  "  O  lonely  Liffe,  cease  thou  such  wordes. 
Thou  payneth  thee  with  pratinge  to  pray  me  to  cease. 
Itt  is  reason  &  right  that  I  may  rent  take,  260 

thus  to  kill  of  the  kind  both  king's  &  dukes, 
loyall  ladds  &  liuelye,  of  ilke  sort  some ; 
all  shall  drye  with  the  dints  that  I  deale  with  my  hands. 
I  wold  haue  kept  the  comandement  of  the  hye  'King  of  heauen, 
but  the  bearne  itt  brake  that  thou  bred  vp  ffirst  265 

when  Adam  &  Eue  of  the  earth  were  shapen, 

242.  MS.  ha/rme.     "  The  alliteration  requires  h;  and  h  is  continually  mis- 
written  for  h.     It  should  be  6(^me  =  ieame  { 265 )  " — Sk.     So  also  Po. 
248.  MS.  toord  for  world — Po. 

250.  Wondering,  only  half  of  the  last  n  in  the  MS. 

251.  MS.  then  for  them. 

259.  The  t  of  pratimge  is  written  over  the  s  in  the  MS.     F.  reads  prasinge. 
266.  The  e  of  Eue  ha?  a  tap  on  the  end  like  an  r — F. 


270  Death  and  Lijfe:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

&  were  put  into  paradice  to  play  with  their  selues, 

cV  were  brought  into  blisse,  bidd  if  the  wold. 

He  warned  them  nothing  in  the  world  but  a  wretched  branche 

of  the  ffajntyest  ifruit  that  euer  in  ffrith  grew.  270 

Yett  his  bidding  they  brake,  as  the  booke  recordeth. 

When  Eue  ffell  to  the  tfruite  with  ffingars  white 

&  plucked  them  of  the  plant  &  poysoned  them  both, 

I  was  ffaine  of  that  ffray,  my  ffawchyon  I  gryped 

&  delt  Adam  such  a  dint  that  hee  dolue  euer  after.  275 

Eue  &  her  of  spring  I  hitt  them  I  hope ; 

for  all  the  musters  that  they  made  I  mett  with  them  once. 

Therfore,  Liife,  thou  me  leaue,  I  loue  thee  but  a  litle; 

I  hate  thee  &  thy  houshold  &  thy  hyndes  all. 

Mee  gladdeth  not  of  their  glee  nor  of  their  gay  lookes;  280 

att  thy  dallyance  &  thy  disport  noe  dayntye  I  haue ; 

thy  ffayre  liffe  &  thy  ffairenesse  ffeareth  me  but  litle ; 

thy  blisse  is  my  bale  breuelye  of  others, 

there  is  no  game  vnder  heauen  soe  gladlye  I  wishe 

as  to  haue  a  slapp  with  my  ffawchyon  att  thy  fayre  state."    285 


[11] 


Then  Lift'e  on  the  land  ladylike  shee  speakes : 
sayth,  "  These  words  thou  hast  wasted,  wayte  thou  no  other; 
shall  thy  bitter  brand  neuer  on  my  body  byte. 
I  am  grounded  in  God  &  grow  for  euermore ; 
but  to  these  men  of  the  mold  marvell  methinketh  290 

in  whatt  hole  of  thy  hart  thou  thy  wrath  keepeth. 
Where  ioy  &  gentlenesse  are  ioyned  together 

269.  Wretched.     The  r  is  written  over  some  other  letter. 

283.  Breuelye.  Bremelyef — P.  The  fourth  letter  may  be  an  n,  but  is 
more  likely  «,  as  F.  reads  it. 

286.  The  scribe  has  bracketed  lines  286-291  and  has  written  "  2  fl5tt  "  in 
the  margin. 

292.  The  i  of  ioyned  has  an  accent  on  it  as  if  for  a  c — F. 


James  E.  Eanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  271 

betweefne  a  wight  &  his  wiffe  &  his  winne  children, 

&  when  ffaith  &  ffellowshipp  are  ffastened  ffor  aye, 

loue  &  charity e,  w/iich  our  Lord  likethe,  295 

then  thou  waleth  them  wtth  wracke  &  wratheffully  beginneth ; 

vncurteouslye  thou  cometh,  vnknowne  of  them  all, 

&  lacheth  away  the  land  that  the  lorc^  holdeth, 

or  woryes  his  wiife  or  waits  downe  his  children. 

Mikle  woe  thus  thou  waketh  where  mirth  was  before.  300 

This  is  a  deed  of  the  devill,  Death,  thou  vsest. 

But  if  thou  leaue  not  thy  lake  &  learne  thee  a  better, 

thou  wilt  lach  att  the  last  a  lothelich  name." 

"  Doe  away,  damsell,"  qi^oth  Death ;  "  I  dread  thee  nought. 
Of  my  losse  that  I  losse  lay  thou  noe  thought ;  305 

thou  prouet  mee  full  prestlye  of  many  proper  things ; 
I  haue  not  all  kinds  soe  ill  as  thou  me  vpbraydest. 
Where  I  wend  on  my  way  the  world  will  depart, 
bearnes  wold  be  ouer  bold  bales  ffor  to  want, 
the  7  sinnes  for  to  serue  &  sett  them  full  euer,  310 

&  giue  no  glory  vnto  God,  that  sendeth  vs  all  grace. 
If  the  dint  of  my  dart  deared  them  neuer, 
to  lett  them  worke  all  their  will  itt  were  litle  ioy. 
Shold  I  for  their  fayrnesse  their  ffoolishnes  allowe? 
My  Liffe  (giue  thou  me  leaue),  noe  leed  vpon  earth  315 

but  I  shall  master  his  might,  mauger  his  cheekes, 
as  a  conquerour  keene,  biggest  of  other, 
to  deale  dolefull  dints  &  doe  as  my  list; 
for  I  fayled  neuer  in  fight  but  I  the  ffeild  wan, 
sith  the  ffirst  ffreake  that  formed  was  euer,  320 

&  will  not  leaue  till  the  last  bee  on  the  beere  layd. 
But  sitt  sadlye,  thou  Liffe,  &  the  soothe  thou  shalt  know. 
If  euer  any  man  vpon  mold  any  mirth  had, 
that  leaped  away  with  thee,  Liffe,  &  laughed  me  to  scorne, 

293.  a  wight,  MS.  his  wight,  probably  by  attraction  from  the  follomng 
his.     So  also  Po. 

315.  The  parentheses  are  in  the  MS. 

322.  MS.  thy  Liffe.    Thy  for  thott—'P.   Cf.  lines  165.  192,  and  393. 


273  Death  and  Liffe:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

but  I  dang  them  with  mj  dints  vnto  the  derffe  earthe.  325 

Both  Adam  &  Eue  &  Abell  I  killed, 

Moyses  &  Methasula  &  the  meeke  Aronn, 

losua  &  Joseph  &  lacob  the  smoothe, 

Abraham  &  Isace  &  Esau  the  roughe; 

Samuell,  for  all  his  ffingers,  I  slew  wtth  my  hands,  330 

&  Jonathan,  his  gentle  sonne,  in  Gilboa  hills; 

David  dyed  on  the  dints  that  I  delt  oft ; 

soe  did  Salomon,  his  sonne,  that  was  sage  holden, 

&  Alexander  alsoe,  to  whom  all  the  world  lowted ; 

in  the  middest  of  his  mirth  I  made  him  to  bow ;  335 

the  hye  honor  that  he  had  helped  him  but  litle. 

When  I  swang  him  on  the  swire  to  swelt  him  behoued. 

Arthur  of  England  &  Hector  the  keene, 

both  Lancelott  &  Leonades,  with  other  leeds  manye, 

&  Gallaway  the  good  'Knighi  &  Gawaine  the  hynde,  340 

&  all  the  rowte  I  rent  ff rom  the  round  table ; 

was  none  soe  hardye  nor  soe  hye,  soe  holy  nor  soe  wicked, 

but  I  burst  them  wtth  my  brand  &  brought  them  assunder. 

How  shold  any  wight  weene  to  winn  me  on  ground  ? 

Haue  not  I  iusted  gentlye  w^'th  lesu  of  heauen  ?  345 

He  was  frayd  of  my  if  ace  in  ff  reshest  of  time. 

Yett  I  knocked  him  on  the  crosse  &  carued  throughe  his  hart." 

&  with  that  shee  cast  of  her  crowne  &  kneeled  downe  lowe 
when  shee  minned  the  name  of  that  noble  Prince. 
Soe  did  Liffe  vpon  land  &  her  leeds  all,  350 

both  of  heauen  &  of  earth  &  of  hell  ff  eends ; 
all  they  lowted  downe  lowe  their  'Lord  to  honor. 
Then  Liffe  kneeled  on  her  knees  with  her  crowne  in  her  hand, 
&  looketh  vp  a  long  while  towards  the  hye  heauen ; 
she  riseth  vpp  rudlye  &  dresseth  her  to  speake;  355 

355.  Rudlye.  For  radyle,  A.  S.  radlice,  quickly,  speedily? — F.  Po.  and 
Holt.  em«nd  to  radlye.  The  tips  of  the  u  are  close  together  and  the  second 
letter,  therefore,  may  be  read  as  an  imperfect  a.  Both  radlye  and  rudlye 
are  often  used  in  alliteration  with  rise.  Rudlye  rise,  although  not  quite 
BO  common  as  radlye  rise,  is  perfectly  intelligible. 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  273 

shee  calleth  to  her  companje  &  biddeth  them  come  neere, 

both  km^s  and  queenes  &  comelye  dukes : 

"  Worke  wiselye  by  jour  witts  my  words  to  heare, 

that  I  speake  ffor  yowr  speed  Sz  spare  itt  noe  longer." 

Then  shee  turneth  to  them  &  talketh  these  words :  360 

she  sayth,  "  Dame  Death,  of  thy  deeds  now  is  thy  doome  shapen 

through  thy  wittles  words  that  thou  hast  carped, 

w^tch  thou  makest  with  thy  mouth  &  mighty  lye  avowes. 

Thou  hast  blowen  thy  blast  breemlye  abroade; 

how  hast  thou  wasted  this  world  sith  wights  were  first,         365 

euer  murthered  &  marde,  thou  makes  thy  avant. 

Of  one  point  lett  vs  proue  or  wee  part  in  sunder : 

how  didest  thou  iust  att  lerusalem  wzth  lesu  my  Lord  ? 

Where  thou  deemed  his  deat[h]  in  one  dayes  time, 

there  was  thou  shamed  &  shent  &  stripped  if  or  aye.  370 

When  thou  saw  the  K.ing  come  with  the  crosse  on  his  shoulder, 

ion  the  top  of  Caluarye  thou  camest  him  against ; 

like  a  traytour  vntrew,  treason  thou  thought. 

Thou  layd  vpon  my  leege  Lord  lotheliche  hands, 

sithen  beate  him  on  his  body  &  buffetted  him  rightlye,  375 

till  the  railinge  red  blood  ran  from  his  sides ; 

sith  rent  him  on  the  rood  with  ffull  red  wounds. 

To  all  the  woes  that  him  wasted  (I  wott  not  ifew), 

tho  deemedst  to  haue  beene  dead  &  dressed  for  euer. 

but,  Death,  how  didst  thou  then  with  all  thy  derffe  words,      380 

when  thou  prickedst  att  his  pappe  with  the  poynt  of  a  speare, 

&  touched  the  tabernackle  of  his  trew  hart 

where  my  bower  was  bigged  to  abyde  for  euer  ? 

356.  MS.  thenn. 

364.  Breemlye  is  Percy's  suggestion.  The  MS.  has  breenlye  or  hreitlye 
(undotted  i).  The  word  is  therefore  breemlye  or  breeulye.  Since  the 
alliterative  group  blow-blast-breemlye  is  so  common,  we  read  breemlye  with 
P.,  Po.,  and  F. 

369.  MS.  deat.     F.  prints  deatlh]. 

376.  Sides.  F.  prints  s[i]des.  But  the  i  is  dotted.  The  imperfect  letter 
is  d,  which  lacks  the  first  stroke. 

379.  Tho.     See  note. 


274  Death  and  Life:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

Wheu  the  glory  of  liis  godhead  glented  in  thy  face, 

then  was  thou  feard  of  this  fare  in  thy  false  hart ;  385 

then  thou  hyed  into  hell  hole,  to  hyde  thee  beliue ; 

thy  fawchon  flew  out  of  thy  fist,  soe  fast  thou  thee  hyed. 

Thou  durst  not  blushe  once  backe,  for  better  or  worse, 

but  drew  thee  downe  ffull  in  that  deepe  hell, 

&  bade  them  barre  bigglye  Belzebub  his  gates.  390 

Then  the  told  them  tydands  that  teened  them  sore, 

how  that  King  came  to  kithen  his  strenght, 

&  how  [he]  had  beaten  thee  on  thy  bent  &  thy  brand  taken, 

with  euerlasting  Liife  that  longed  him  till. 

Then  the  sorrow  was  ffull  sore  att  Sathans  hart ;  395 

hee  threw  ffeends  in  the  ffyer,  many  ffell  thousands ; 

&  Death,  thou  dange  itt  on  whilest  thou  dree  might ; 

for  ffalte  of  thy  ffawchyon,  thou  fought  wzth  thy  hand. 

Bost  this  neuer  of  thy  red  deeds,  thou  ravished  bitche! 

Thou  may  shrinke  for  shame  when  thou  the  sooth  heares.      400 

Then  I  leapt  to  my  Lord  that  caught  me  vpp  soone, 
&  all  wounded  as  hee  was,  wtth  weapon  in  hand, 
he  fastened  ffoote  vpon  earth  &  ffollowed  thee  ffast 
till  he  came  to  the  caue  that  cursed  was  holden. 
He  abode  before  Barathron  that  bearne  while  he  liked,  405 

that  was  euer  merke  as  midnight  wtth  mourni[n]ge  &  sorrowe; 
he  cast  a  light  on  the  land  as  beames  on  the  sunn. 
Then  cryed  that  IS^ing  wtth  a  cleere  steuen, 
*  Pull  open  your  ports,  you  princes  wtthin ; 
here  shall  come  in  the  Km^  crowned  with  ioy,  410 

wfetch  is  the  hyest  burne,  in  battell  to  smite.' 
There  was  ffleringe  of  ffeends  throughe  the  fyer  gaynest, 
hundreds  hurled  on  heapes  in  holes  about. 
The  broad  gates  all  of  brasse  brake  all  in  sunder 
&  the  'King  with  his  crosse  came  in  before.  415 

393.  MS.  he  for  she.     Cf.  lines  165,  192,  and  322. 

400.  The  Hales-Furnivall  text  inadvertently  omits  the  second  thou. 

401.  that  is  written  over  the  abbreviation  for  and. 
406.  MS.  mowmige. 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  275 

He  leapt  vnto  Lucifer  that  Lord  himselfe ; 

then  he  went  to  the  tower  where  chaynes  were  manye, 

&  bound  him  soe  biglye  that  hee  for  bale  rored. 

Death,  thou  daredst  that  day  &  durst  not  be  seene 

ifor  all  the  glitering  gold  vnder  god  himseluen.  420 

Then  to  the  tower  hee  went  where  chanes  are  many ; 

hee  tooke  Adam  &  Eue  out  of  the  old  world, 

Abraham  &  Isaac  &  all  that  hee  wold, 

David  &  Danyell  &  many  deare  bearnes 

that  were  put  into  prison  &  pained  ffull  long.  425 

Hee  betooke  me  the  treasure  that  neuer  shall  haue  end, 

that  neuer  danger  of  death  shold  me  deere  after. 

Then  wee  wenten  fforth  winlye  together 

&  left  the  dungeon  of  devills  &  thee,  Death,  in  the  middest. 

&  now  thou  prickes  ffor  pride,  praising  thy  seluen.  430 

Therfore  bee  not  abashed,  my  barnes  soe  deere, 

of  her  ffauchyon  soe  ifeirce  nor  of  her  ffell  words. 

Shee  hath  noe  might,  nay  no  meane,  no  more  you  to  greeue, 

nor  on  jouy  comelye  corsses  to  clapp  once  her  hands. 

I  shall  looke  you  ffull  liuelye,  &  latche  ffull  well  435 

&  keere  yee  ffurthcT  of  this  kithe  aboue  the  cleare  skyes. 

If  yee  [loue]  well  the  Ladye  that  light  in  the  mayden, 

&  be  christened  with  creame  &  in  jour  creede  beleeue, 

haue  no  doubt  of  yonder  Death,  my  deare  children, 

for  yonder  is  damned  with  devills  to  dwell,  440 

where  is  wondering  &  woe  &  wayling  ffor  sorrow. 

Death  was  damned  that  day,  daring  ffull  still. 

Shee  hath  no  might,  nay  no  maine,  to  meddle  with  yonder  ost, 

against  euerlasting  Liffe  that  Ladye  soe  true." 

Then  my  Lady  Dame  Liffe  with  lookes  soe  gay,  445 

437.  Some  word  has  been  omitted  by  the  scribe.  P.  suggests  serue  or 
loue.     We  supply  loue,  as  Po.  and  F.  suggest. 

440.  The  Hales-Furnivall  text  supplies  death  after  yonder.  But  since 
yonder  is  used  absolutely,  death  is  not  necessary  for  the  meaning,  the  alli- 
teration, or  the  metre. 

445.  With.  The  scribe  wrote  vp  and  then  added  th  without  changing  the 
vp  to  tc.     Ypon  is  never  abbreviated  in  this  poem. 


276  Death  and  Lijfe:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

that  was  comelje  cladd  with  kirtle  aud  mantle, 

shee  crosses  the  eompanye  with  her  cleare  ffingers. 

All  the  dead  on  the  ground  doughtilye  shee  rayseth 

fairer  by  2  ffold  then  thej  before  were.  [450 

With  that  shee  hyeth  ouer  the  hills  wtth  hundreds  ffull  manye. 

I  wold  have  ffollowed  on  that  f aire,  but  no  further  I  might ; 

what  with  wandering  &  with  woe  I  waked  beliue. 

Thus  fared  I  throw  a  ffrith  in  a  ffresh  time, 

where  I  sayd  a  sleepe  in  a  slade  grcene. 

There  dreamed  I  the  dreame  with  dread  all  bef righted,        455 

But  hee  that  rent  all  was  on  the  rood  riche  itt  himseluen. 

&  bringe  vs  to  his  blisse  with  blessings  enowe! 

Therto,  lesu  of  Jerusalem,  grant  vs  thy  grace, 

&  saue  there  our  howse  holy  for  euer !    Amen. 

fHnts. 


446.  Kirtle.   MS.  christall.  Cf.  II.  83  and  89. 

447.  This  line  was  accidentally  omitted  in  the  H.-F.  text. 
450.  Manye.     The  n  is  imperfeot  in  the  MS. 

452.  Wwndermg.     There  is  only  one  stroke  for  the  last  n  in  the  MS.,  or 
the  first  stroke  of  the  g  is  written  over  part  of  the  n. 
455.   With.    MS.  which. 


:n"otes 

p.  ==  Percy  (notes  recorded  in  the  Folio  MS.  and  reprinted  in  the  Halea- 
Fumivall  edition),  Sk.  =  Skeat  (notes  in  the  Hales-Furnivall  edition), 
F.  =  Furnivall  (ibid.),  Po.=:York  Powell  {Eng.  Stud.,  vu,  97-101),  Br. 
=  Brotanek  (Anglia  Beiblatt,  xttt,  176-177),  Holt.  =  Holthausen  (Anglia 
Beiblatt,  xxm,  157-159).  The  quotations  from  Piers  Plotoman  are  from 
the  C  version. 

1  ff.  Cf .  The  Crowned  King,  1 : 

Crist,  crowned  kyng  that  on  cros  didest. 

A  similar  invocation  is  to  be  found  in  Morte  Arthure. 

2.  hadd  pavnes.  Po.,  Br.,  and  Holt,  read  "  hard  paines."  The  syntax 
does  not  demand  the  change. 

deffend.  Po.  reads  "  preserve."  Holt.  "  repair  "  to  improve  the  allitera- 
tion. But  the  type  of  line  without  alliteration  in  the  second  half  is 
common  enough.     See  the  section  on  Metre  in  the  Introduction. 

4.  Cf.  Morte  Arthure,  3990: 

This  ryalle  rede  blode  ryne  appone  erthe. 

5  ff.  The  text  here  is  very  puzzling.  Perhaps  the  meaning  is  "  give  us 
grace  to  serve  thee  .  .  .  and  to  take  to  ourselves  thy  joyous  word,  as  the 
world,  with  its  riches  etc.,  demands  that  we  should  do."  The  phrase  "  as 
the  world  asketh  "  is  a  commonplace.     Cf.  Piers  Plowman,  i,  21 : 

Worchynge  and  wandrynge  as  the  worlde  asketh. 
Also  Morte  Arthure: 

werke  nowe  thi  wirchipe  as  the  worlde  askes   (2187). 
6.  Cf.  Pwrlement,  634: 

Ne  ther  is  reches  ne  rent  may  rawnsome  30ur  lyves. 
9.    worthes  to  nought.     Cf.  Parlement,  637: 

Me  thynke  J'e  wele  of  this  werlde  worthes  to  noghte. 
13.  Cf.  Scotish  Feilde,  87  and  203: 

thus  he  promised  to  the  prince  [that  paradice  weldeth]. 
Also  Winnere  and  Wastou/re,  296: 

It  es  plesynge  to  the  prynce  ]?at  paradyse  wroghte. 

16.  thou  Shalt  byterlye  bye.  Po.  reads  "bye  it,"  a  suggestion  which  is 
supported  by  Piers  Plowman,  B  rn,  249  (not  in  C)  : 

Shal  abie  it  bittere  or  the  boke  lyeth! 

277 


278  Death  and  Life:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

But  the  verb  is  not  always  transitive.  Of.  254  and  Piers  Plowman, 
xn,  448:  Thow  shalt  abygge  bittere. 

20.  Cf.  Morte  Arthure,  4: 

and  gyffe  vs  grcpce  to  gye,  and  gouerne  vs  here. 

21.  The  line  is  suhstantially  repeated  in  Scotish  Feilde,  421 : 

lesus  bring  vs  to  blisse  that  brought  vs  forth  of  bale. 

22-39.  Compare  the  very  similar  description  in  the  Parlement,  7-16,  and 
in  Wvnnere  and  Wastotire. 
24.  Cf.  Parlement,  119: 

Raylede  alle  with  rede  rose,  richeste  of  floures. 

Variants  of  this  line  are  constantly  repeated  in  alliterative  poetry.  Cf. 
Destruction  of  Troy,  624: 

As  the  Roose  in  his  Radness  is  Richest  of  floures; 
Morte  Arthure,  3457 : 

A  reedde  actone  of  rosse  the  richeste  of  floures; 
and  Sootish  Feilde,  26: 

rayled  full  of  red  roses  and  riches  enowe. 

28.  As  I  there  glode.  Holt,  would  read  "  as  I  glode  there."  But  the 
second  accented,  syllable  in  the  second  half  line  sometimes  bears  the  alliter- 
ation.    Cf.  311  and  see  the  section  on  Metre. 

30.  /  settled  me  to  sitt.  Po.  reads  "I  fettled  me  to  sit"  in  the  intereste 
of  the  metre.     Of.  Parlement,  20: 

And  ferkes  faste  to  her  fourme  &  fatills  her  to  sitt. 

But  the  double  alliteration  a  a /bib  is  very  common,  there  being  ten  other 
such  cases  in  D.  d  L.     See  Metre,  type  VI. 

For  the  expression  cf.  Scotish  Feilde,  254  and  257: 

at  the  ffoot  of  a  fine  hill  they  setteled  them  all  night  .  .  . 
bidd  them  settle  them  to  fight  or  they  wold  fare  homeward. 

The  emendation  settled  y  fettled  would  help  the  metre  here  as  well  as  in 
D.  &  L.,  but  the  author  certainly  wrote  settled. 

31.  Of.  Piers  Plowmam,  xrx,  184:  As  hor  as  an  hawethorn. 

In  Winnere  and  Wastoure  the  author  lies  down  on  a  hill  beside  a  hawthorn. 

32.  /  hent  my  hache  to  the  hole.     Cf .  Pa/rlement,  39 : 

And  to  the  bole  of  a  birche  my  berselett  I  cowchide. 

33.  Powell  says  this  line  is  all  wrong.  "  The  sense  is  '  as  I  looked  about 
me  for  a  time  under  the  green  hawthorne  ' ;  the  p-words  are  misreadings 
of  the  scribe.  The  original  he  had  before  him  must  have  had  two  g-words 
instead."  The  inconsistency  to  which  Po.  objects  is,  however,  simply  an 
instance  of  a  characteristic  confusion  of  expression  due  to  the  tyranny  of 
the  alliterative  phrase.     Cf.  37,  "  lying  Edgelong  on  the  ground,"  which 


James  E.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  279 

does  not  suit  with  "  I  "bent  my  back  to  the  ihole."     The  alliteration,  more- 
over, is  perfectly  correct.    See  note  to  30. 
34.  Cf.  Wmnere,  44: 

ffor  din  of  the  depe  watir  and  dadillyng  of  fewllys ; 

William  of  Palertie,  23: 

&  briddes  ful  bremely  on  J)e  bowes  singe. 

36.  /  sayed  a  sleepe.  Cf.  Destruction  of  Troy,  679:  Jjat  all  sad  were  on 
fileeipe;   and  Child  Waters,  30,  3-4: 

For  there  is  noe  place  about  this  house 
Where  I  may  say  a  sleepe. 

37.  list  all  my  seluen.  List  is  probably  miswritten  for  lift  =  left  as  Sk. 
and  Po.  suggest. 

39-45.  An  elaboration  of  Piers  Plowman,  i,  14-21.  See  Introduction, 
p.  247. 

40.  vpon  a  great  mountaine.  Schumacher  (op.  cit.)  would  alter  great 
to  mikle.  But  one  alliteration  in  each  half  line  is  common  enough  in  this 
poem,  as  Schumacher  himself  points  out. 

43.  comelye  castles  d  Cleare.     Cf.  Morte  Arthure,  3674: 

Caatelles  fulle  comliche,  tha.t  coloured  ware  faire! 

Oolagrus  and  Gowain,  366,  has  a  similar  alliterative  group. 

46.  /  sett  me  dovme  softlyet  Po.  would  emend  "  Then  I  set  me  downe 
softlye."  But  the  half  line  scans  easily  as  it  stands:  x  '  x  x  '  x.  For  the 
type  see  Luick,  Anglia,  xi,  402  fF. 

48.  d  I  icayted  me  about.  Cf.  Parlem^ent,  46:  And  wayttede  wittyly 
abowte ;  and  657 : 

And  I  wakkened  therwith  and  waytted  me  vm;be, 

and  Piers  Plowman,  i,  16:  westwarde  ich  waitede. 

49.  Piers  Plovmiwn,  B,  Prologue,  6   (not  in  the  C  text)  : 

me  bifel  a  ferly  of  fairye  me  thou3te, 

affords  a  model  for  the  emendation  of  this  obviously  corrupt  line  of  the  MS. 
We  have  followed  Powell's  reading  in  the  text. 

51.  &  knights  ffull  noble.  P.  suggests  kings.  Cf.  Destruction  of  Troy, 
7844: 

Kyngis  in  his  cowjpany  &  knyghtes  full  nobill. 

63.  Cf.  Destruction  of  Troy,  84: 

Of  Dukes  full  doughty  and  of  derffe  Erles. 

56.  the  plaine  and  the  roughe,  i.  e.,  plain  and  hill.  The  reference  is  to 
holte  and  hill  above,  not  to  people. 

57.  Est%oa/rd  I  looked.     Cf.  Piers  Plowman,  i,  14:  Esteward  ich  byhulde. 

58.  brightest  of  other;  i.  e.,  the  brightest  of  any.  Cf.  317  and  Scotish 
feilde,  48 :  "  most  peerlesse  of  other,"  and  Destruction  of  Troy,  2433,  4050, 
and  7865. 


280  Death  and  Liffe:   An  Alliterative  Poem 

61  flf.  Sk«?ftt  compares  the  vision  of  Lady  Meed,  Piers  Plovoman,  iii,  8-18. 
But  see  Introduction,  p.  251. 

Cheereing  ffull  comlye.  Po.'a  alteration,  kayringe,  is  inappropriate.  Ch 
commonly  alliterates  witli  c  =  k.  Of.  Luick,  Anglia,  Xl,  602  ff.,  Schu- 
macher, op.  cit.,  and  Glossary. 

62.  vpon  cleare  clothes.  Both  Sk.  and  Po.  fail  to  understand  the  passage. 
The  sense  is  "  walking  on  bright  cloths  which  were  all  of  clear  gold,  laid 
broadly  upon  the  field,  etc."  The  relative  pronoun  is  often  omitted  before 
were. 

66.  her  rudd  redder  them  the  rose.     Cf.  Awntyrs  of  Arthure,  xni. 

For  my  rud  was  raddur  than  rose  of  the  ron. 

70.  they  lowted  to  that  Ladye.  Cf.  Destruction  of  Troy,  9253:  Than  he 
lut  to  l^e  lady. 

71.  Cf.  Parlement,  11: 

Burgons  &  blossoms  &  braunches  full  swete, 
and  Destruction  of  Troy,  2736: 

burions  of  bowes  brethit  full  swete. 

72.  powers  fflourished  in  the  frith.     Cf.  Morte  Arthure,  924: 

The  irithez  were  floreschte  with  flourez  fulle  many. 

78.  Bwrrons  &  bachelours.  The  identical  phrase  occurs  in  Wars  of  Alex- 
ander, 155. 

82.  lowly  Ladye.     Probably  for  "  lovely  Ladye."    So.  P.  and  Po.     Cf.  258. 

83-4.  in  kirtle  and  mamtle  of  goodlyest  greens.  Cf.  Parlement,  122: 
He  waa  gerede  alle  in  greene ;  and  see  the  whole  description  of  the  bejewelled 
figure  in  the  Parlement  representing  Youth.  For  a  discussion  of  the  second 
line  and  its  relation  to  the  mystic  garment  of  Natura  see  Introduction, 
p.  250.     Cf.  also  Winnere  and  Wastovre,  90: 

This  kynge  was  comliche  clade  in  kirtill  and  mantill. 

86.  A  similar  line  occurs  in  Morte  Arthure,  3877 : 

and  the  graciouseste  gome  that  vndire  God  lyflfede. 

Cf.  D.    &  L.,  190,  "  no  groome  under  God." 

8.  d  the  price  of  her  [perrie}.  Sk's  suggestion  for  the  lacuna  in  the  M8. 
is  confirmed  by  Parlement,  129 : 

pe  price  of  that  perry  were  worthe  powndes  full  many. 

The  line  occurs  in  the  description  of  Youth  and  is  pretty  certainly  the 
original  of  the  line  in  D.  d  L.    Cf.  Parlement,  192: 

The  pryce  of  thi  perrye  wolde  purches  the  londes. 

92.  as  beames  of  the  sun.  The  commentators  are  agreed  that  heamea 
here  and  in  line  407  is  a  "stupid  alteration  of  leames."  Sk.  says  "the 
conjecture  is  changed  to  certainty  by  8cotish  Feilde,  309 : 


James  E.  Eanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  281 

with  leames  full  light  all  the  land  over. 

95.  Schumacher  calls  attention  to  the  cross  alliteration:   ab  /ah. 

98  ff.  Skeat  thinks  that  Lady  Liffe  and  her  train  are  to  be  identified 
with  Langland's  Lady  Anima  and  her  attendants,  Sir  Seewel,  Sir  Seiwel, 
Sir  Huyrewel  the  hende,  etc.  See  Introduction.  The  Death  and  Liffe  author 
has  developed  the  assemblage  in  accordance  with  the  traditional  conception 
of  the  Court  of  Love. 

100.  Sir  Comfort  that  Knight.  "Sir  Comfort  their  (or  her)  Chamber- 
lain "  —  Po.  This  emendation  makes  the  sense  easier,  but  there  is  no 
assurance  that  the  author  did  not  write  the  line  as  it  stands.  Cf.  the 
awkwardness  of  lOL 

In  Piers  Plowman,  xxxin,  91,  the  "  lord  that  lyuede  after  lust "  cries  out 
to  "  Comfort,  a  knyght "  to  bear  his  banner  against  death. 

101.  yee  sturdye  been  both.  Yee  should  be  "that"  or  "who"  according 
to  Po.  (i.  e.,  the  abbreviation  yt  may  have  been  misread  by  the  scribe) .  But 
possibly  yee  =  yea;  or  the  expression  may  stand  as  it  is,  the  half  line  being 
parenthetical  with  a  shift  in  point  of  view  characteristic  enough  of  the 
author's  style. 

109.  beawtye  [<€]  blisse.     Cf.  line  242. 

110  flf.  With  this  description  of  the  effects  of  Lady  Liffe's  presence  on 
living  things  compare  the  parallels  with  Alanus  de  Insulis'  De  Planctu 
Natures,  given  in  the  Introduction,  p.  250. 

112.  Br.  reads  "both  bearnes  and  beastes  and  birds  in  the  leaues."  Of. 
delend. —  P.    But  of  —  by  and  is  required  by  the  verb  made  in  line  110. 

116.  what  woman  that  toas.  Cf.  Piers  Plownta/n,  n,  68:  "what  womman 
hue  were." 

"  The  failure  of  a  poet  at  first  to  recognize  his  allegorical  visitant  had 
by  this  time  {i.e.,  the  date  of  The  Pearl)  become  almost  a  convention." 
See  Schofield,  "  The  Nature  and  Fabric  of  the  Pearl,"  P.  M.  L.  A.  xrx,  1, 
179.  Schofield  cites  as  examples  Philosophia  in  Boethius,  Reason  in  The 
Romance  of  the  Rose,  Holichurche  in  Piers  Plmcma/n.  We  may  add  Natura 
in  Alanus'  De  Planctu. 

119.  Cf.  Piers  Plowman,  u,  76: 

Thanne  knelede  ich  on  my  knees  and  criede  hure  of  grace. 
And  preiede  hure  ipytously. 

Sk.  infers  that  "  praysed  "  should  be  "  prayed."  Cf.  also  Piers  Plowman, 
in,  1. 

122.  hee  cheri^shed  me  cheerlye,  i.  e.,  Comfort  fondled  me  lovingly. 

127-8.  ffostered  &  ffed.  The  phrase  is  commonplace.  Cf.  Wm.  of  Paleme, 
243:  ]>ei  han  me  fostered  and  fed.  Also  ibid  318  and  356,  and  Winnere, 
206.  The  recurrence  of  the  expression  renders  unimportant  Skeat's  parallel 
from  the  description  of  Holichurche,  Piers  Plowman,  li,  73:  "Ich  vnder- 
feng  the  formest."  The  idea,  "  I  nourished  you  even  before  your  birth," 
points  clearly  to  the  conception  in  Alanus,  De  Planctu,  of  Nature  as  the 
source  of  man's  physical  life.  Skeat  cites  also  Piers  Plowman,  B,  rx,  56, 
where  it  is  said  of  Lady  Anima: 


282  Death  and  Liffe:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

Ac  in  the  herte  is  hir  home  and  hir  moate  reste. 
Cf.  C,  XI,  173: 

Inwitt  is  in  the  hefd  as  Anima  in  the  herte. 

130.  Po.  would  read  ''  feare  not  to  frayne  if  thou  wilt  flFerlyes  wit."  But 
see  note  to  line  30. 

131.  rf  /  shall  kindlye  thee  ken.    Cf.  Morte  Arthure,  3521: 

kene  thou  me  kyndely  whatte  caase  es  be-fallene. 

135.  Cf.  421.     Also  Scotish  Feilde,  103: 

for  all  the  gloring  gold  vnder  the  god  of  heauen. 

136-7.  the  longer  the  more.  We  have  retained  the  MS.  reading.  The 
Hales-Furnivall  text  reads  "the  longed."  Holt,  says  that  "I"  is  obviously 
to  be  substituted  for  "  the."  The  passage,  however,  may  be  read  as  it 
stands:  "  Thus  in  the  enjoyment  of  this  living  (the  longer  the  more)  there 
was  riding  and  revel  that  rang  in  the  banks  till  it  neared  to  noon."  Or  a 
line  may  have  'been  dropped  out  after  136.  In  any  ease  "  the  longer  the 
more  "  should  not  be  altered.    Cf.  The  Pewrl,  180: 

&  ever  t>e  lenger,  pe  more  &  more. 

till  that  it  neighed  neere  noone.    Cf.  Piers  Plownum,  and  it  neighed  nyghe 
the  none, 

and  Avmtyrs  of  Arthvre,  vi : 

Euyn  atte  the  mydday  this  ferly  con  falle. 

139.  Winne  to  behold.  "  Woe  to  behold  "—P.  "  The  word  woe  in  the 
first  half  line  is  the  difficulty ;  may  it  be  the  A.  S.  wo,  woh,  in  the  original 
sense  of  bent,  inclined?  Or  rather  it's  (put  for  wold'ie,  mad.  Winne  is  joy, 
pleasure."  —  Sk.  Winne  seems  to  be  right.  Skeat's  suggestions',  however, 
are  far-fetched  and  the  line  remains  a  puzzle. 

142.  In  a  nooke  of  the  north.  Cf.  Piers  Plowman,  n,  112  flf.  See  Intro- 
duction, p.  247.  Cf.  also  Piers  Plowman,  xxi,  168:  '"  Out  of  the  nype  of  the 
north." 

144.  with  the  biggest  bere.     Cf.  Avmtyrs  of  Arthure,  X: 

The  greundes  were  alle  agast  of  the  gryme  here. 

Also  ibid,  xxvi:  "with  a  grym  bere." 

147.  Cf.  the  description  of  the  crucifixion  in  Piers  Plowman,  xxi,  58  ff, 
especially  64: 

The  erthe  quook  and  quashte  as  hit  quyke  were. 

151  ff.  The  description  of  Death  has  its  parallels  in  the  accounts  of 
various  monsters  in  the  alliterative  poems,  e.  g.,  the  bear  in  Arthur's  dream, 
Morte  Arthure,  774  flf: 

Thanne  come  of  the  Oryente  ewyne  hyme  agaynez 

A  blake  bustoM-s  bere  abwene  in  the  clowdes 

toith  yche  a  pawe  as  a  poste,  and  paumes  fuUe  huge, 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  283 

with  pykes  fuUe  periloiAs,  alle  plyande  (/^ame  semyde, 
Lothene  and  lothely,  lokkes  and  other  .  .  . 
The  foulleste  of  fegure  that  fowrmed  was  euer! 

Cf.  also  the  description  of  the  giant,  1074  ff. 

Closer  is  the  passage  describing  the  ghost  of  Guinevere's  mother  in  the 
Aumtyrs  of  Arthwre,  es: 

Alle  bare  was  the  body,  and  blak  by  the  bone, 

Vmbeclosut  in  a  cloude,  in  clething  evyl  clad; 

Hit  gaulut,  hit  gamurt,  lyke  a  woman, 

Nauthyr  of  hyde,  nyf  of  heue,  no  hilling  hit  had  .  .  . 

Hyr  enyn  were  holket  and  holle. 

And  gloet  as  the  gledes.   (cited  by  Miss  Scamman). 

Comparison  should  also  be  made  with  Elde  in  The  Parlement,  152  h. 
153.  Powell  rewrites: 

ther  was  no  segge  of  this  syht  but  he  was  sore  afFrayd. 

This  does  well  enough  as  original  composition  in  the  alliterative  manner, 
but  there  is  no  justification  for  a  radical  treatment  of  the  text  to  normalize 
imperfect  lines.     Segge  for  man  may  of  course  be  right. 

155.  The  "  quintful  queene  "  is  Pride.  Cf.  183.  Quintful  =  delicate.  In 
the  account  of  the  coming  of  Antichrist,  Piers  Plowmcm,  xxn,  Pride  bears 
the  ibanner  of  Antichrist  and  Elde  and  Death  follow  in  his  train.  On  the 
association  of  Death  with  the  Vices  see  Introduction,  p.  247.  Envy  and 
Anger  are  mentioned  in  185  as  attendants  upon  Death. 

156.  Cf.  Scotish  Feilde,  232: 

with  3  crownes  full  cleare  all  of  pure  gold. 

This  line  in  D.  £  L.  is  a,  good  test  case  for  Powell's  hypothesis  of  full 
alliteration  in  every  line.  He  emends :  "  all  of  cleane  gold."  The  Scotish 
Feilde  poet,  then,  must  have  been  a  victim  of  the  same  scribal  substitution. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  there  are  so  many  lines  in  this  and  other 
alliterative  poems  which  have  no  alliteration  in  the  second  half  that  we 
must  assume  a  loose  practice  on  the  part  of  their  authors  rather  than 
changes  due  to  error  and  substitution.  See  section  on  Metre  in  the  Intro- 
duction. 

157.  d  shee  the  ffoulest  ffreake  that  formed  was  euer.  "  Shee  "  is  Death, 
not  Pride.     Cf.  Morte  Arthv/re,  781: 

The  foulleste  of  fegure  that  fourmede  was  euer ! 

Cf.  also  D.  d  L.  320  and  Morte  Arthv/re,  1061,  3301,  for  similar  alliterative 
groups. 

159-160.  "Strangely  enough  none  of  the  editors  has  noticed  the  contra- 
diction between  these  two  lines;  according  to  line  159  Death  was  stark 
naked,  according  to  line  160,  clothed  in  linen.     I  propose: 

She  was  naked  as  my  nayle,  but  (=only)  a,bove,  and  belowe 
She  was  lapped  about  in  Linnen  breeches  "  — Br. 


284  Death  and  Life:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

If  this  is  the  sense  there  is  no  necessity  ior  a  change  in  the  text.  But  it 
is  to  consider  too  curiously  to  consider  so.  The  author  was  probably  uncon- 
scious of  or  indifferent  to  the  contradiction.  It  happens  that  precisely  the 
same  inconsistency  occurs  in  The  Awntyrs  of  Arthvre,  rx: 

Alle  bare  was  the  body,  and  blak  by  the  bone, 
Vmbeclosut  in  a  cloude,  in  clothing  evyl  clad. 

Cf.  Piers  Plowman,  n,  3: 

A  loueliche  lady  of  lere  in  lynnen  y-clothid. 

166-166.  Cf.  Awntyrs  of  Arthurs,  rx: 

Her  enyn  were  holket  and  holle, 
And  gloet  as  the  gledes. 

170.  her  lere  like  the  lead,  i.  e.,  the  leaden  hue  of  the  cadaver. 

171.  d  =  an.  — F. 

172.  bloody  beronen.  A  favorite  phrase.  Cf .  Destruction  of  Troy,  10424 ; 
Sootish  Feilde,  31;  Parlement,  62. 

173-4.  The  construction  is  obscure.  The  idea  is  that  her  left  hand  was 
like  a  griflfin's  leg,  with  the  claws  coming  together  (touching)  at  the  tips. 
Very  likely  the  passage  is  corrupt,  but  it  may  be  simply  another  instance 
of  loose  grammatical  construction. 

175.  Cf.  The  Awntyrs  of  Arthwre,  x,  where,  however,  the  formula  is  used 
of  Gawain,  not  of  the  "  ugly  ghost "  whom  he  is  facing: 

Then  this  byrne  braydet  owte  a  brand. 

185.  yeme.  P.  interprets  promptus,  cupidus.  Sk.,  however,  is  correct  in 
explaining  the  word  as  "  iron."  Cf.  Scotish  Feilde,  363,  "  in  their  Steele 
weeds";  Oolagrus  and  Gawaine,  xliv,  557:  "  in  gleman  steil  wedis." 

187.  Cf.  William  of  Paleme,  566: 

What  sorwes  &  sikingges  I  suffer  for  his  sake. 

190.  Cf.  Destruction  of  Troy,  572: 

There  is  no  gome  vnder  gode  J^at  hym  greue  may. 

192.  she  (MS.  he)  stepped  forth.  The  confusion  of  pronouns  here  and 
elsewhere  is  probably  scribal.  The  common  gender  "  bearne  "  in  the  preced- 
ing line  and  the  fact  that  Death  is  usually  thought  of  as  masculine  may, 
however,  account  for  the  change  in  this  case. 

196  ff.  The  effects  of  Death's  presence  are  parallel  to  those  of  Liffe'e 
(Nature's).  See  above  69  ff.  and  note.  Somewhat  similar  is  the  account 
of  the  terror  occasioned  by  the  appearance  of  the  ghost  in  The  Awntyrs  of 
Arthwre,  x : 

The  houndes  hyes  to  the  holtes  and  thayre  hedus  hidus;  .  .  . 

The  bryddus  in  the  boes. 

That  of  the  gost  gous, 

Thay  scryken  in  the  scoes. 

That  herdus  my3ten  hom  here. 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  285 

196.  when  tM  heard  wapen.  Po.  reads  "  when  they  heard  her  frappen." 
But  see  Glossary.  Wapens  =  weapons  in  Wars  of  Alexander,  65.  In  any 
case  "  her  "  has  probably  dropped  out. 

207.  dolefullye  dyen.  "  Carefully  dyen  "  —  Po.  and  Schumacher.  But 
again  we  have  the  standard  type  of  line  aa/(bb.  So  also  in  184,  where 
Schumacher  would  alter  "  following  "  to  "  suing." 

210  ff.  Life's  complaint  of  her  injuries  at  the  hands  of  Death  is  closely 
paralleled  in  Winnere  and  Wastoure,  229,  where  VVinnere  protests  that  the 
false  Wastoure,  is  ruining  the  goods  which  he  has  accumulated;  Winnere 
brandishes  his  brand  and  boasts  that  he  will  destroy  the  whole  country.  ' 

thynkes  to  strike  or  he  styntt  and  stroye  me  for  euer. 

213.  d  he  hearJmeth  itt  hendlye.  Cf.  Destruction  of  Troy,  9238:  She 
hearknet  hym  full  hyndly. 

215.  Cf .  Morte  Arthvre,  1953 : 

That  rode  for  the  rescowe  of  3one  riche  knyghttez. 

216.  Eee  was  bovme  att  his  hidd.  Cf.  Golagrus  and  Oawain,  330:  Be 
boune  of  your  bidding. 

218.  he  ran  out  of  the  raineboic.  A  reminiscence  of  the  classical  Iris, 
messenger  of  the  gods? 

219.  d  light  on  the  Land.  Cf.  Destruction  of  Troy,  2817:  fTor  to  light 
on  \>e  londe. 

221.  "There  is  something  wrong  with  this  line;  perhaps  we  should  read 
'wrecche'  for  '  Queene '  " — Po.  There  are,  however,  many  lines  of  this 
type :  a  x  /  a  a.     See  section  on  Metre. 

225.  for  gryme.  P.  suggest  forgrim,  very  grim,  A.  iS.,  grim,  fury,  rage. 
"  Looked  fiercely  and  gnashed,  her  teeth  for  rage  at  Countenance's  talk." — 
F.     Pronominal  confusion  again.     Cf.  165,  192,  etc. 

226.  hut  shee  did  as  shee  davned.  Dained  =  ordained,  bade  —  Sk.  "  The 
context  wants  the  meaning  'was  told  to'"  —  F.  We  interpret:  "but  ahee 
(Death)  did  as  she  (Life)  dained  (thought  proper),  durst  shee  no  other." 
See  Glossary.  Po.  emends :  "  but  shee  did  as  he  dained."  Br.  suggests  "  as 
she  dained  was." 

231.  kissed  kindlye,  a  common  alliterative  phrase.     Cf.  Morte  Arthure,  714. 
233.  weakmesse    of   care.      "  W^eaknesse    is    entirely    meaningless.      Read 
'worker  of  care'   (parallel  with  '  bringer  of  sorrow,'  line  234)  " — Br. 

238.  For  the  very  common  alliteration  on  reason :  right  see  Destruction 
of  Troy,  10715,  etc. 

239.  why  kills  thou  the  body.  Po.  would  emend  to  "  why  kills  thou  the 
corse,"  in  order  to  make  this  line  regular.  But  see  section  on  Metre,  where 
this  type  of  line  is  discussed. 

There  is  perhaps  a  reminiscence  here  of  The  Debate  of  the  Body  amd  the 
Soul,  where  the  body's  innocence  is  defended. 

254.  thou  buy  must  full  deere.    The  verh  is  intransitive  as  in  16. 

255.  If  "  they  "  is  correct,  it  refers  to  "  l)earnes  "  of  253 ;  but  perhaps  it 
is  an  error  -for  "thou"  or  for  "thee"  (Po's  reading). 


286  Death  and  Life:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

268.  bidd  if  th6  wold.    Cf.  Scotish  Feilde,  116: 

saies,  "  1  am  bound  to  goe  as  ye  me  bidd  wold." 

The  line  may  be  explained:  "Would  have  been  brought  into  bliss  (of 
heaven)   if  they  had  petitioned  it." 

278.  therefore,  liffe,  thou  me  leaue.  Perhaps  giue  has  been  omitted. 
Cf.  315. 

285.  as  to  haue  a  slapp  with  my  ffa/wchyon.  Po.  reads :  "  as  to  haue  a 
flapp."   But  the  line  is  of  a  fairly  common  type :  a  b  /  a  b. 

287.  loayte  thou  no  other.  P.  says  wayte  =  wat.  For  the  Northern 
spelling  ay  for  a  cf.  layeth,  229.  But  "  wat "  gives  poor  sense.  The  half 
line  may  be  explained:  ''don't  expect  anything  more,"  or,  perhaps,  as  a 
miswriting  for  wayste,  waste. 

290-291.  "  It  seems  a  marvel  to  me  in  what  hole  of  thy  heart  thou 
keepest  thy  wrath  toward  the  men  of  the  earth."  Holt,  would  read  "  wra  " 
for  "  hole."  But  the  alliterative  expression  "  hole  of  thy  heart "  seema 
certainly  the  original. 

308-9.  "Where  I  pass,  the  world  (i.e.,  worldly  things  and  thoughts) 
depart.  [If  I  did  not  come]  men  would  be  over  bold.  Wastoure  makes  a 
similar  justification  of  his  utility  in  Winnere  and  Wastonre.  Were  it  not 
for  him  the  poor  would  have  nothing,  etc. 

310.  The  second  half  line  is  unintelligible. 

311.  "Transpose:  'that  all  grace  us  sendeth '  or  write,  according  to  1. 
458,  '  granteth  '  instead  of  '  sendeth  '  "  —  Holt.  But  the  last  accented 
syllable  may  bear  the  alliteration.  Moreover,  type  a  a  /  a  is  the  most 
common  type  of  alliteration  in  this  poem. 

312.  Cf.  Morte  Arthiire,  3611: 

That  no  dynte  of  no  darte  dere  theme  ne  schoulde. 

321.  on  the  beere  layd.  "The  alliteration  demands:  "  layd  on  the 
beere  "  —  Br.    But  see  note  to  line  311. 

325  ff.  The  author  is  pretty  clearly  adopting  the  roster  of  the  Nine 
Worthies  and  the  heroes  of  romance  from  The  Parlement.  The  following 
names  are  common  to  both  lists:  Soloman,  Alexander,  Joshua,  David, 
Hector,  Arthur,  Lancelot,  Gawain,  Galahad   ( Gallaway  ? ) . 

330.  Samuel.  Read  Saul. —  P.  The  scribe  may  have  misread  Saul  as  the 
abbreviation  for  Samuel,  Saml. 

ffor  all  his  ffingers.  Po.  would  read  stingers.  The  meaning  is  "  Saul,  in 
spite  of  the  strength  of  his  hands." 

334-5.  Cf.  Parlement,  400: 

Jjare  he  was  dede  of  a  drynke,  as  dole  es  to  here. 
That  the  curssede  Cassander  in  a  cowpe  hym  broughte. 

339.  Leonides,  i.  e.,  Leonadas.  The  author  is  apparently  not  unversed  in 
classical  lore.    Cf.  note  on  218. 

340.  d  GalloAjixiy  the  good  Knight.  Galahad,  possibly.  Cf.  Parlement, 
473: 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  287 

Bot   sir   Galade    the   gude. 

More  probaibly,  however,  the  author  has  created  a  new  knight  out  of  the 
name  of  Gawain's  province,  Galway.    Cf.  Awntyrs  of  Arthure,  xxxm. 
341.     Cf.  Golagrus  and  Gatcadn,  520: 

with  the  rout  of  the  Round  Tahill  that  wes  richest. 

345,  368.  lusted  gently e  with  lesu.     Cf.  Piers  Ploicman,  xxi,  26:     Ho 
shal  louste  with  lesus? 
Also  xxr,  17 : 

'And  ho  shoulde  lusten  in  lerusalem? '  'lesus,'  he  seide. 
349.  Cf.  Scotish  Feilde,  33-34 : 

&  oarryed  him  to  Liester 
&  Naked  into  Newarke  I  will  mine  him  noe  more. 

This  quotation  and  others  that  might  be  cited  (see  mene,  Ncrrthern  Passion) 
render  impossible  Skeat's  suggestion  that  minned  =  nemned. 

351.  both  of  heauen  and  of  earth.  "  Can  we  read  '  home  '  for  'earth  ';  it 
would  suit  the  verse  best  ?  "  —  Po.  But  h  freely  alliterates  with  vowels  in 
this  poem  (see  lines  57,  276,  338,  etc.).  Again,  by  improving  the  allitera- 
tion we  should  destroy  the  meaning  of  the  line.  "  Heauen  and  earth  "  la  a 
commonplace. 

378-9.  tho  demedst  to  haue  beene  dead.  Tho  =  thou.  "  Deemedst 
[him.]"  —  Po.  This  emendation  is  unnecessary  in  view  of  the  writer's 
carelessness  in  construction. 

381  ff.  The  author  has  been  unable  to  visualize  the  combat.  Death  appears 
from  lines  384-388  to  have  retreated  in  haste,  dropping  her  falchion  as  she 
ran.  But  in  367-8  the  contest  seems  to  have  been  ^bitter  and  prolonged. 
Death  is  disarmed  and  continues  fighting  with  her  hand.  Again  the  literal 
and  allegorical  aspects  of  the  crucifixion  become  confused. 

385.  then  was  thou  feard  of  this  fare.    Cf.  Destruction  of  Troy,  11008: 

I  am  not  ferd  of  ]>i  fare,  ne  J'i  fell  speche. 

390.  For  the  phrase  "  barre  bigglye  "  cf.  Destruction  of  Troy,  691,  6035, 
10739,  etc. 

391.  tM  told  them  tydwnds.  Percy  suggests  "  thou  toldest."  The  con- 
text demands  "  thou." 

393.  &  how  he  had  beaten  the  on  the  (ms.  thy)   bent. 

d  how  he  had  beaten  —  Po.    The  MS.  shee  may,  however,  stand  for 
Everlasting  Life,  identified  with  Christ. 

399.  bost  this  neuer.  "  host  thee  neuer  "  —  Po.  But  the  meaning  may 
be  "  Boast  never  of  this  (thy  slaying  of  Jesus)  among  thy  red  deeds." 

404  fT.  This  passage  follows,  in  general,  as  Skeat  has  shown,  the  accoimt 
of  the  Harrowing  of  Hell  in  Piers  Plovrma/n,  xxi,  27  ff.  Cf.  especially  the 
following  details: 

A  voys  loude  in  that  light  to  Lucifer  seide. 

Princes  of  this  palys  prest  unto  the  Bates. 

For  here  cometh  with  coroune  the  kyng  of  alle  glorie.   P.  PI.  274-6. 


288  Death  and  Liffe:  An  Alliterative  Poem 

Pull  open  your  ports  you  princes  within ! 

Here  shall  come  in  King  crowned  with  ioy.    D.  d  L.  409-410. 

Ac  rys  vp  RagamoflFyn  and  reche  me  alle  the  harres 

That  Belial  thy  bel-isyre  boet  with  thy  damme 

Ar  we  thorw  bryghtnesse  be  blent  barre  we  the  ^ates.  P.  PI.  284-6. 

&  bade  them  barre  bigglye  Belzebub  his  gates.    D.  &  L.  390. 

Thow  shalt  abygge  bittere  quath  god  and  bond  hym  with  cheynes. 
P.  PL  448.    Cf.  D.  d  L.  417. 

The  Death  d  Liffe  author  has  condensed  the  account  by  omitting  the  long 
discussion  between  Christ  and  Satan,  and  he  has  greatly  heightened  the 
picturesque  and  dramatic  features.  Various  complications  caused  by  the 
introduction  of  the  allegorical  figures  of  Truth,  etc.,  are  avoided.  See 
Introduction,  p.  247. 

407.  Cf.  92  and  note.     On  =  of. 

416.  he  leapt  vnto  Lucifer.  Cf.  Piers  Plowman,  B  i,  116:  "  Lopen  out 
with  Lucifer";  C  n,  112-3:  "  thulke  wrechede  Lucifer  Lopen  alofte." 

417.  This  line  is  perhaps  out  of  place  here.  Cf.  421,  Po.  suggests 
"  thanes  "  for  "  chanes  "  in  421,  but  the  line  as  it  stands  there  is  certainly 
right,  whereas  the  sense  in  417  is  better  without  it. 

435-6.  "  I  shall  watch  over  you  carefully,  and  do  ye  understand  full  well 
and  turn  ye  further  from  this  world  to  a  place  above  the  clear  skies." 
Cf.  Morte  Arthure,  6: 

That  we  may  kayre  til  hys  courte,  the  kyngdome  of  hevyne, 

and  Scotish  Feilde,  154 :  "  keire  wold  no  further." 

437.  Ladye.  Perhaps  for  leed  (cf.  315).  But  the  author  is  identifying 
Christ  and  Eternal  Life  throughout  the  passage  and  "  Ladye "  may  be 
right;  i.e.,  if  you  love  well  salvation.  Liffe  speaks  of  herself  or  rather  of 
her  other  self  again  in  444. 

451.  that  faire.  Cf.  fyat  fai/re,  Destruction  of  Troy,  525;  \>at  comly, 
552,  etc. 

457-9.  Cf .  Pturlement,  664 : 

There,  dere  Drightyne,  this  daye  dele  vs  of  thi  blysse, 
And  Marie,  Jjat  es  mylde  qwene,  amende  vs  of  synn; 

also  Destruction  of  Troy,  14044 : 

He  bryng  vs  to  the  blisse,  J>at  bled  for  our  Syn. 

There  is  no  need  of  supposing  an  omitted  line,  as  Po.  does.  The  construc- 
tion is  clear.  "  To  that  end  Jesus  of  Jerusalem  grant  us  grace  and  save 
there  (i.  e.,  in  Jerusalem)  a  place  or  a  '  mansion  '  for  us." 


GLOSSARY 


avant,  366,  boast. 

lachelaurs,   78,  bachelors,  aspirants 

to  knighthood. 
bade,  390,  ordered,  bade. 
hall,  21,  bale.    This  spelling  occurs 

in  Wm.    of    Palerne,    1819,    and 

Cursor  Mundi,  4775. 
banely,     247,     promptly,     willingly, 

readily. 
Barathron,     405,     Barathrum,     the 

abyss,  hell.     The  first  citation  in 

N.  E.  D.  is  dated  1520. 
tames,  see  hea/rne. 
hearne,  14,  90,   112,  242,  424,  child, 

man,  person. 
heere,  321,  bier. 
behoved,  336,  behooved. 
beliue,  73,  387,  452,  quickly. 
bent,  63,  149,  192,  223,  grassy  slope, 

field;  thy  bent,  393,  the  bent.   Cf. 

236. 
bere,  144,  noise,  uproar. 
beronen,  172,  overflown,  surrounded. 
betooke,  426,  delivered,  committed. 
bidd,  268,  petition,  ask  for;  or  bide 

(Sk).     See  note. 
bigged,  383,  built. 
biglye,    bigglye,    390,    418,    greatly, 

mightily. 
bine,    254?      This    word    occurs    in 

Floris  and  Blaucheflour,   Trent- 
ham  MS.  1010, 

"Blancheflour  seide  byne, 
J>e  gilt  of  our  dedes  is  moyne." 

So  far  as  I  have  been  able  to 
determine,  this  is  the  only  occur- 
rence of  the  word  outside  of 
D.  d  L.  The  context  in  both 
poems  shows  that  the  word  may 
be  an  adverb.  It  is  possible  that 
bine  is  an   ablaut  form  of  O.  N. 


bemn,  direct,  straight,  prompt. 
Cf.  nu  beint,  just  now. 

birth,  234,  maiden,  lady  {M.E.bvrd, 
burd).  I  think  that  the  scribe 
has  confused  th  and  d  here  as  in 
lodlye  and  lothelich. 

blee,  65,  98,  color,  complexion. 

blenched,  32,  turned  to. 

blinn,  254,  cease. 

blusche,  388,  cast  a  glance,  blushed, 
191. 

bode,  149,  abode,  remained. 

boolish,  58  ?  ''  Perhaps  '  tumid,' 
swelling,  rounded."  Thus  bole  in 
1.  32  from  O.  E.  bolne,  to  swell. — 
Sk. 

both,  both;  12,  also. 

bower,  383,  bower. 

bowes,  23,  boughs. 

bowne,  216,  prepared,  ready. 

bradd,  175,  made  a  sudden  motion, 
jerk,  brandish;   216,  start. 

brake,  265,  271,  414,  broke. 

brand,  175,  brand,  sword. 

brawders,  63,  embroideries. 

breath,  34,  breath,  odor. 

breathed,  23,  emitted  odors. 

breme,  34,  74,  bold,  fierce,  boldness. 

bremelye,  364,  boldly,  fiercely,  vigor- 
ously. 

breuelye,  283,  briefly  ?  or  for  breme- 
lye (Percy)  ? 

brode,  63,  broad. 

bur  gens,  71,  burgeons,  buds. 

burlyest,  145,  stoutest,  largest. 

burne,  411,  man,  warrior. 

burnisht,  175,  polished,  made  ready. 

but,  9,  56,  316,  but;  254,  unless. 

buy,  254,  pay  for,  atone  for.  Cf. 
bye. 

bye,  16,  pay  for,  make  amends.  See 
note. 

289 


290 


Death  and  Life:  An  Alliierative  Foem 


bi/tcrli/c,  U),  bitterly. 

carped,  231,  362,  talked,  chattered, 
complained. 

caruen,  43,  carved. 

certcs,  123,  certainly. 

cheereing,  61,  turning,  moving.  Cf. 
keere,  kere,  kyreth. 

Clarke,  85,  clerk.     Cf.  clearkes. 

cleare,  43,  62,  clear,  bright. 

clearkes,  8,  clerks,  learned  men.  Cf. 
Clarke. 

cold,  114,  could.   Ct.  wold. 

colour,  89,  collar. 

coninge,  8,  knowledge,  skill.  Cf. 
cuninge. 

corsses,  434,  bodies. 

cost,  8,  condition. 

craddle,  207,  cradle. 

creame,  438,  chrism,  cleum  sacra- 
turn.    Cf.  Gen  and  Ex.  2458. 

cuninge.  111,  knowledge,  skill.  Cf. 
coninge. 

dained,  226,  deigned  ?  ordered  ?  See 
note. 

dallyance,  108,  281,  dalliance,  pleas- 
ure. 

dang,  204,  325,  beat,  struck.  Cf. 
dunge. 

daring,  442,  hiding. 

daredst,  418,  hid,  lay  close,  lurked. 

dayntye,  281,  delight. 

deared,  312,  injured.    Cf.  deere. 

deere,  427,  injure.     Cf.  dea/red. 

derffe,  325,  hard,  firm,  cruel.  0.  E. 
dearf,     Cf.  8c.  F.  32,  etc. 

derffe,  380,  troublesome.  0.  E. 
gedeorf. 

dint,  275,  blow,  stroke. 

disport,  108,  sport,  disport. 

dolu£,  275,  delved. 

doubt,  439,  fear. 

doughtye,  53,  doughty. 

doughtilye.  448,  doughtily. 

dree,  395,  endure,  carry  through.  Cf. 
drye. 

dresses,  220,  182,  189,  prepares. 


driglit,  38,  noble,  magnificent. 
driueth,  10,  driveth. 
drwyes,  87,  love  tokens,  gifts,  treas- 
ures. 
drye,  263,  endure.     Cf.  dree, 
dunge,  211,  struck,  beat.     Cf.  dang, 
durst,  226,  durst,  dared. 
edgelong,  37,  edgelong. 
enowe,  457,  enough. 
erles,  53,  earls. 
faine,  113,  274,  glad,  joyous. 
faire,  451,  fair  one.    See  note. 
fairer,    thy  fairer,   236,    the    fairer. 

Cf.  393. 
falte,  398,  lack,  need. 
farden,  165,  fared,  went,  were. 
fare,  235,  business,  proceeding;  385, 

fair   one    (cf.   fayre).     See   note 

to  1.   385. 
fared,  22,  fared,  went. 
fawchyon,    274,    286,   fawchon,    387, 

falchion. 
fayleth,  16,  fail,  be  false. 
fayntyest,  270,  faintest,  poorest. 
fayre,  64,  fair  one;  30,  385,  fair. 
fayrlye,  49,  wonder,  strange  event. 
feard,  385,  afraid. 
feeld,  64,  /eiW,  319,  field. 
fell,  396,  cruel. 
/eH,  201,  felled. 
fere,  186,  companion, 
/isf.  387,  hand. 
flappe,  201,  stroke. 
fleringe,  412,  grimacing,  making  wry 

faces.    See  N.E.D.  fleer, 
fraine,  130,  question,  inquire. 
frayd,  346,  afraid. 
freake,    157,    161,    176,    320,    man, 

creature. 
freshest,  346,  newest,  earliest. 
frith,  72,  270,  forest. 
gainest,  208,  quickest,  readiest,  best. 
Gallaway,  340.     See  note. 
garr,  190,  cause. 

5ra<e,  193,  way,  manner  of  going. 
gaynest,  412,  quickest. 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Jr.  291 


geere,  175,  gear,  trappings. 

gentlye,  345,  nobly,  like  a  gentle- 
man. 

glented,  384,  gleamed,  shone  sud- 
denly. 

glode,  28,  glided. 

glowed,  225,  glowered,  looked  angry. 

gogled,  147,  shook. 

gone,  151,  walk,  go. 

g7-an,  225,  gnashed  the  teeth. 

greaten,  17,  increase. 

greened,  73,  turned  green. 

grislye,  154,  terrible,  grim. 

groome,  84,  86,  190,  man,  creature. 

grow,  289,  grow. 

gryme,  225,  variant  of  grim,  anger, 
fury.    See  note. 

grype,  173,  raven. 

gryped,  274,  gripped. 

hart,  7,  heart. 

hewrd,  196,  heard. 

hea/rd,  199,  herd,  company. 

heare,  158,  hair. 

hend,  80,  prompt,  gracious. 

hendlye,  213,  graciously. 

hew,  158,  hue. 

Aide,  158,  skin. 

holte,  55,  hill. 

hare,  31,  white,  hoar. 

hyeth.  199,  speedeth,  hasteneth. 

fei/«d,  106,  340,  gentle,  courteous. 

hyndes,  279,  hinds,  servants. 

like,  94,  same;  262,  each. 

i-wisse,  104,  certainly. 

kaitiffe,  237,  caitiflF. 

keene,  10,  51,  keen,  bold. 

keere,  436,  turn.  See  fcere,  kyreth, 
and  cheereimg. 

ken,  131,  show,  inform. 

fcere,  47,  turn;  kered,  117,  turned. 
S€e  keere,  kyreth  and  cheereing. 

killethe,  205,  killeth.     Cf.  qtiellethe. 

kind,  85,  sort,  kind. 

kindlye,  131,  231,  kindly;  111,  by 
nature. 

fcir^ie,  83,  kirtle. 


kithe,    436,   native    country,   region. 

Cf.  kythe. 
kithen,  392,  make  known. 
kyreth,  230,  turneth.    See  keere,  kere, 

and  cheereing. 
kythe,  47,   see   kithe. 
lach,    303,    take,    receive;     lacheth, 

298,  taketh.    See  latche. 
lake,  302,  see  leake. 
land,  25,  "  leaned  or   layd,  as   in  1. 

63?"— F.     The    form   land   may 

be  the  preterit  of  lenden,  remain, 

or  it  may  be,  as  F.  suggests,  a 

miswriting  for  layd,  or  leaned, 
lapped,  160,  wrapped. 
latche,  435,  receive.     See  la^h. 
layeth,  228,  loathsome,  deadly.   This 

spelling  occurs  in  Pari.  152.     Cf. 

lodlye. 
leake,    249,    play,    sport.      Cf.    lake 

above  and  layke.  Pari.,  49. 
leanwd,  179,  taught. 
leed,  315,  339,  350,  man,  person. 
leege,  374,  liege. 
lenghtened,  29,  lengthened. 
lent,  188,  committed,  entrusted. 
Leonades,  339,  see  note. 
lere,  170,  face. 
lidder,  249,  evil. 
light,  219,  437.  alighted. 
like,  68,  like,  please. 
list,  37,  see  textual  note. 
lodlye,    162,   loathly.     See   lothelich 

and  layeth. 
long,  133,  abide,  dwell;    longed,  60, 

86,  106,  abode,  remained, 
^ow^red,  394,  belonged  to.     Cf.  Sc.  F. 

9. 
longer,    the    longer    the    more,    136, 

See  note. 
looke,    29,    look;    435,    watch    over, 

keep  safe.     See  note. 
losse,  305,  fame,  reputation,  praise. 
losse,  305,  lost. 
lothelich,    303.    374,    loathly.      See 

lodlye  and  layeth. 
lothinge,  188,  loathing. 


292 


Death  and  Life:  An  Alliterative  Poem 


louly,  82,  lovely  or  lowly ?  See  text- 
ual note. 

lowted,  70,   179,  334,  352,  bowed. 

maine,  443,  main,  might.   Cf.  meane. 

marde,  141,  marred,  spoiled. 

marreth,  243,   marreth. 

mauger,  316,  in  spite  of. 

maymed,  141,  maimed. 

me,  30,  myself. 

meane,  434,  main,  might,  power.  Cf. 
maifie. 

meanye,  243,  company. 

merke,  406,  murky,  dark. 

middest,  335,  midst. 

m,ikle,  300,  much,  great. 

minned,  349,  mentioned. 

mold,   134,  323,  earth. 

mores,  40,  maurs,  high  open  places. 

morninge,  186,  mourning. 

mourninge,  406,  mourning. 

murthered,  366,  murdered. 

musters,  211 ,  displays,  tricks. 

m,y  list,  318,  me  list.  The  same  con- 
fusion of  my  and  me  occurs  in 
Eavelok  2204,  Layamon's  Brut, 
1200. 

nay,  433,  443,  nay,  or  possibly  nay 
=  «e,  nor,  as  Sk.  suggests. 

ne,  8,   nor. 

nehh,  169,  point,  end,  beak. 

neere,  356,  near,  or  nearer. 

neighed,  91,  137,  approached. 

noe,  11,  etc.,  no. 

nooke,   142,  corner. 

on,  1,  etc.,  on;   407,  of. 

or,  140,  367,  ere,  before. 

ost,  443,  osie,  57,  host. 

pappe,  381,  breast. 

paradice,  13,  paradise. 

pight,  227,  pitched,  pierced. 

plaine,  56,  227,  flat,  even.  See  note 
to  1.  56. 

ports,  409,  gates. 

presse,  52,   crowd. 

pratinge,  259,  prattling,  chattering. 

prestlye,  203,  306,  readily,  promptly. 


prickcs,  430,  spurs,  rides  fast;  or 
dresses  elaborately. 

profrereth,   79,   offereth,   prof  ere  th. 

prouet,  306,  provest. 

quakinge,  155,  quaking,  trembling. 

quellethe,  203,  killeth.     Cf.  killetke. 

quintful,  155,  proud,  haughty,  deli- 
cate. This  spelling  of  quaintful 
occurs  in  Wm.  of  P.,  1401,  and 
Sir  Feriimbras,  1681,  3257. 

raigne,  238,  reign. 

railinge,  376,  rimning,  flowing. 

rattlinge,   146,  rattling,  noisy. 

rayling,  24,  ornamenting. 

reacheth,  200,  extendeth,  stretches 
forth. 

recon,  14,  reckon. 

retch,   246,   wretch. 

riche,  456,  govern,  control. 

rise,   66,   twig. 

rood,  377,  rood,  cross. 

ronge,  138,  rang.     Cf.  runge. 

roughe,   57,  200,  rough. 

rought,  239,  wrought. 

row*,  146,  200,  crowd. 

riidd,  66,   complexion. 

rudlye,  355,  roughly,  strongly,  rude- 
ly.   But  see  textual  note. 

runn,  26,  ran. 

runge,  146,  rang.     Cf.  ronge. 

rydinge,    138,   riding. 

sadlye,  322,  seriously,  still. 

saie,   36,   sat. 

sai/d,  454,  became  heavy  (in  sleep), 
cf.  sayed. 

saye,  50,  151,  saw.  See  textual  note 
to  lines  50  and  151. 

sayed,  36,  became  heavy  (with 
sleep ) .     Cf .  sayd  and  see  note. 

seemelye,  50,  seemly. 

selcoth,  96,  181,  strange  thing,  won- 
der. This  spelling  occurs  in  8c. 
F.,  72. 

seluen.,  37,  self. 

sett,  310,  value?  See  l'!.  E.  D.  set, 
91. 


James  H.  Hanford  and  John  M.  Steadman,  Ji 


29: 


shapen,  266,  sharped. 

sheere,  59,  pure,  clear. 

shent,  370,  shamed,  disgraced. 

side,  166,  wide. 

sides,    376,    sides. 

sikinge,  187,  sighing. 

sith,  127,  318,  365,  since. 

slade,  454,  open  place,  valley. 

slapp,  285,  blow,  slap. 

sonn,  65,  sun. 

Sonne,  18,  son. 

sorrowful,  152,  sad,  causing  sorrow. 

specyaltye,  208,  partiality,  particu- 
lar right. 

speed,  359,  success. 

speede,   117,  suceed. 

spilleth,  208,  destroys. 

staleworth,    104,    stalworth. 

s/eMew,  408,  voice. 

stinted,  177,  ceased. 

stout,    104,    stout,   proud. 

swang,  337,  beat,  struck. 

swaynes,  54,  lads,  servants. 

stoeeres,  54,  squires.  Variant  of  the 
more   usual   stoyere. 

swelt,  337,  become  faint,  die. 

stvire,  337,  neck. 

stoond,   176,  swoon. 

talents,  174,  talons?  I  find  this 
variant  of  talons  in  Wright's 
Dial.  Diet.     See  note. 

teened,  391,  vexed,  troubled. 

teenful,    174,    troublesome. 

</ie,  3,  thee. 

the,  391.     See  note. 

«Ae,  75,   196,  268,  they. 

tho,   115,   then. 

tho,  379.     See  note. 

tholed,  1,  suffered. 

throngeth,  251,  crowds,  presses. 

<%,  236,  the.     Cf.  line  63. 

till,  91,   to. 

tipen,   104,  bend,  tilt. 

to,  87,  too. 

touchimge,    174,   touching. 

truse,  11  (1)  package — F.,  or,  more 
probably,  (2)  truce.     Cf.  Sc.  F., 


396:  d  the  truce  that  was  taken 
the  space  of  2  yeeres. 

turnes,   249,   turns,   tricks. 

tushes,  168,  tusks. 

tydands,  391,  tidings. 

unrid,  171,  enormous,  cruel.  Vari- 
ant of  unride.  See  note  to  1. 
1647  of  Guy  of  Warvnck,  E.  E. 
T.  S.  ed.,  pp.  371-2.  The  spell- 
ing without  e  occurs  in  Alex. 
566,  Toton.  Mys.,  p.  221,  E.  E.  T. 
S.  ed.,  Ormulum,  etc. 

vunlye,  45,  variant  of  tomlye,  joy- 
fully, pleasantly.  Cf.  vepan  for 
wepan,  vyrschipp,  vreke,  etc.  in 
Bradley-Stratmann. 

wakinge,   35,   watching. 

waleth,  298,  aflBicteat,  vexest. 

waits,  299,  overthrows. 

wan,  319,  won. 

wapen,  196,  blows  (cf.  whap)  ?  flut- 
tering? rustling?  weapons?  See 
note. 

wappeth,  217,   lashes  about,  beats. 

ware,  84,  wore. 

warrant,  206,  protect. 

wary,  255,  curse. 

wasts,  42,  wastes. 

wayte,  287,  await,  wait  for. 

wayted  me,  48,  looked  around, 
watched.    See  note. 

weaknesse,  233,  see  note. 

weene,  344,  expect. 

weldeth,   13,   ruleth,  governeth. 

were,  22,  where.  Cf.  where  for  were. 
8e.  F.,  72. 

whilest,  397,  whilst. 

wight,   217,   293,   person,   wight. 

ivild,  the  icild,  75,  the  wild  animals. 

mlled,   120,   desired. 

loinne,  5,  293,  pleasant,  joyous ;  139, 
see   note. 

winlye,  75,  80,  428,  joyously,  pleas- 
antly. 

uyinn.  129,  joyoiis;  139. 

ichin,    344,   overcome. 

wist,    144,   knew. 


294: 


Death  and  Lijfe:  An  Alliterative  Poem 


with  that,  175,  then. 

witt,  120,  show,  reveal;    131,  know. 

xvoe,   139.     See  note. 

wold,  would,  like  wold,  68,  would 
like.     Cf.  cold,  could. 

wondering,  441,  wandering.  Cf.  1. 
452. 

loorshipp,  120,  honor,  respect. 

worth,  248,  become,  worthes,  9,  be- 
comes. 

wott,  378,  know. 

Wright,  238,  right. 


lorought,   15,   wrought,   worked. 

wrought,  wrought  lady,  215, 
"  Wrought  perhaps  is  the  same 
with  the  Scotch  wrachit,  i.  e., 
wretched." — P. 

yee,   101.     See  note. 

yerne,   185,  iron.     See  note. 

yonder,  440,  yonder,  that  one  (used 
absolutely).  Cf.  \>e  jon  (that 
one )  Wm.  of  Palerne,  3052.  See 
textual  note. 


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